THERMOCHROMIC METAL HALIDE PEROVSKITE WINDOWS WITH IDEAL TRANSITION TEMPERATURES

Abstract

The present disclosure relates to a composition that includes a first phase that includes a perovskite and a second phase that includes a salt, a polymer, and a switching molecule, where the first phase and the second phase are in physical contact, and the composition is capable of reversibly switching between a substantially opaque state and a substantially transparent state.

Description

BACKGROUND

Buildings account for over one-third of the world’s final energy consumption and approximately 28% of global CO₂ emissions, which increases to >40% when building-related construction is included. Urban areas composed of high-rise buildings continue to gain population and are predicted to encompass 70% of the world’s population by the middle of this century. At the same time, urban skylines increasingly feature glass façades, and the architectural trend across building sectors is toward more glass, despite it greatly underperforming their opaque cladding counterparts for building efficiency. Therefore, new window technology must be developed and deployed to reconcile the significant impact buildings have on the environment with the architectural demand for more glazing.

For thermochromic materials to be functionally and economically in the marketplace, they need an ideal critical transition temperature (T_C), fast transition kinetics, a narrow hysteresis width (defined as the difference between the temperatures needed to switch from bleached to colored and colored to bleached), and high solar modulation ability. Thermochromic materials include liquid crystals and leuco dyes, but vanadium dioxide has been established as the quintessential solid-state thermochromic material for building applications. It has been the focus of research for decades due its relatively low-temperature insulator-to-metal Mott transition. Though low compared to most oxides, 68° C. is well above the ideal Tc for window applications. An ideal T_C has been suggested to range between 10° C. and 28° C. based on various reports in the previous decade that typically study simplified buildings and glazing systems (savings reported relative to single-pane windows) and in single climate locations. Significant research has thus been put into reducing the T_C of VO₂ with success in reaching T_C<30° C. by using nanostructuring or doping. However, reducing T_C slows the transition kinetics by decreasing the thermodynamic driving force and results in a larger hysteresis width due to the nature of the first-order phase transformation of VO₂.

Metal halide perovskite materials are a class of semiconductors that have captured the imagination of the materials science community in the last decade due to their unmatched optoelectronic properties and scalable solution processibility. Most research has centered on photovoltaics due to their extraordinarily absorption coefficients in the visible and near infrared regions of the solar spectrum. The inherently low formation energy of perovskites enables rapid transformation from the highly absorbing phase to highly transparent ones, which leads to unmatched solar modulation ability. State transformation is induced using intercalation, crystal phase transformation, and nanoparticle precipitation. Each mechanism has now been leveraged to produce thermochromic windows. Perhaps the most interesting feature of perovskites as thermochromic materials is the opportunity to combine chromism with photovoltaic energy generation to bypass the fundamental tradeoff between visible transmittance of a photovoltaic window and power generation. However, ideal transition temperatures for perovskite-based thermochromic windows are yet to be demonstrated. Thus, there remains a need for improved perovskite-containing compositions, device architectures, and stacks for thermochromic window applications.

SUMMARY

An aspect of the present disclosure is a composition that includes a first phase that includes a perovskite and a second phase that includes a salt, a polymer, and a switching molecule, where the first phase and the second phase are in physical contact, and the composition is capable of reversibly switching between a substantially opaque state and a substantially transparent state. When in the opaque state, the perovskite is an opaque perovskite comprising a three-dimensional (3D) perovskite, when in the transparent state, the perovskite is a transparent perovskite comprising a zero-dimensional (0D) perovskite that is in a complex with the switching molecule, and the first phase switches between the opaque state and transparent state when the composition transitions through a critical temperature, T_c, between about 20° C. and about 95° C. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, T_c may be between about 20° C. and about 75° C. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, T_c may be between about 20° C. and about 25° C.

In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the switching molecule may include at least one of water, methanol, ethanol, propanol, and/or butanol. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the switching molecule may include at least one of water and/or methanol. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the opaque perovskite may include ABX₃, where A includes a first cation, B includes a second cation, and X includes a first anion. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the transparent perovskite may include A, B, and X at a ratio of AX to BX that is greater than 1.0. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the transparent perovskite may include at least one of A₆BX₈ and/or A₄BX₆. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the transparent perovskite may further include at least one of A₆BX₈•2MeOH and/or A₄BX₆•2H₂O.

In some embodiments of the present disclosure, A may include at least one of methyl ammonium, formamidinium, or cesium. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, B may include at least one of lead, tin, germanium, and/or a transition metal. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, X may include a halide. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the salt may include at least one of AX or AX´, where X′ includes a second anion.

In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the polymer may include at least one of carbon, hydrogen, and/or oxygen. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the polymer may include at least one of an ether linkage, a ketone linkage, an amide linkage, a hydroxyl group, and/or a carboxylic acid group. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the polymer may include at least one of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), polyacrylic acid (PAA), and/or polyethyleneimine. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the polymer may be present at a concentration between about 0.1 wt% and about 50 wt% relative to the transparent perovskite.

In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the composition may further include a plurality of pores that are present within the first phase in the opaque state and substantially absent in the translucent state. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the pores may be present at a concentration between about 0.1 vol% and about 70 vol% relative to the opaque perovskite. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the perovskite may be in the form of a plurality of grains separated by a plurality of grain boundaries, where at least a portion of the polymer is positioned at at least one of adjacent to the pores or within the pores while in the opaque state, and at least a portion of the polymer is positioned at at least one of adjacent to the grain boundaries or within the grain boundaries while in the transparent state.

In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the opaque perovskite may include MAPbI₃. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the transparent perovskite may include at least one of MA₆PbI₈ and/or MA₄PbI₆. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the transparent perovskite may futher include at least one of MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH and/or MA₄PbI₆•2H₂O. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the salt may include at least one of MAX, MAX´, FAX, FAX´, CsX, or CsX´.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Some embodiments are illustrated in referenced figures of the drawings. It is intended that the embodiments and figures disclosed herein are to be considered illustrative rather than limiting.

FIGS. 1A and 1B illustrate a perovskite in a corner-sharing, cubic phase arrangement, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 2A illustrates three possible corner-sharing phases for perovskites, Panel A) cubic phase (i.e., α-ABX₃), Panel B) a tetragonal crystalline phase (i.e., β-ABX₃), and Panel C) an orthorhombic crystalline phase (i.e., γ-ABX₃), according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 2B illustrates a perovskite in one of the three possible phases, the cubic phase (i.e., α-phase), compared to two non-perovskite phases (i.e., non-corner sharing), according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3 illustrates 2D, 1D, and 0D perovskite-like structures, in Panels A, B, and C, respectively, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 4A illustrates aspects of the present invention, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure: Panel A) illustrates a graphical representation of a thermochromic perovskite films containing a polymer in the colored and bleached states with insets illustrating the general molecular interactions present in both states. Panel B) illustrates exemplary polymers, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 4B illustrates a graphical illustration comparing the crystal structures of composite perovskite films in the colored phase and upon exposure to H₂O and MeOH, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. Square insets in are representative photographs comparing the gray-scale intensity of each phase. The corresponding colors were approximately, tan, black, and beige, respectively, from top left, to top right, to bottom.

FIGS. 4C-E illustrate select wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) data extracted from in-situ cycling of thermochromic perovskite films alternatively exposed to H₂O/MeOH and 75° C., from FIGS. 13A-13F, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. Data were obtained from the last WAXS image of the first (FIG. 4C) H₂O, (FIG. 4D) heating, and (FIG. 4E) MeOH cycle. Gray bars in (FIG. 4E) indicate the additional phase associated with methanolation. The 2θ axes are relative to Cu Kα (1.5406 Å, 8.04 eV) radiation and were calculated from Q =4πsin(θ)/λ where λ is the excitation wavelength.

FIG. 5A illustrates representative photographs showing the color changes of composite perovskite films incorporating polymers and/or doped with excess MACl salt upon exposure to H₂O by heating up 70° C. in 5° C. increments to identify the film’s T_C, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 5B illustrates representative photographs showing the color changes of composite perovskite films incorporating polymers and/or doped with excess MACl salt upon exposure to MeOH followed by heating up 70° C. in 5° C. increments to identify the film’s T_C, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 5C illustrates the thermochromic transition temperature (Tc) for each composite perovskite film extracted from FIGS. 5A and 5B, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 5D illustrates the time for bleaching to occur (t_bleach) defined as the time for the MAPbI₃ (100) peak to disappear as determined from in-situ WAXS data with a resolution of 15 seconds as shown in FIGS. 13A-F, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 6A illustrates absorbance measurements collected on composite perovskite-containing films heated above T_c, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 6B illustrates absorbance measurements collected on composite perovskite-containing films bleached with H₂O, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 6C illustrates absorbance measurements collected on composite perovskite-containing films bleached with MeOH, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7A illustrates a schematic of representative H-bond interactions in the bleached and color states of the composite thermochromic perovskite film, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7B illustrates attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectra of the N-H bending mode of thermochromic perovskite films without a polymer, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7C illustrates attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectra of the N-H bending mode of thermochromic perovskite films with PAA, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7D illustrates attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectra of the N-H bending mode of various films in the colored state and after exposure to H₂O and MeOH vapor, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. Peak position of the N-H bending vibrational modes for each thermochromic perovskite film in the colored state and after exposure to H₂O and MeOH.

FIG. 8A illustrates attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy data of a composite perovskite-containing film in the colored state, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 8B illustrates attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy data of a composite perovskite-containing film after exposure to H₂O, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 8C illustrates attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy data of a composite perovskite-containing film after exposure to MeOH vapor, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 9A illustrates aspects of the present invention, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure: Panel A) illustrates a representative scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of composite perovskite-containing films containing a polymer in the colored and bleached states. Panel B) presents an illustration of thermochromic perovskite-containing smart windows in the colored and bleached states.

FIG. 9B illustrates transmittance data of over 200 thermochromic switching cycles of alternating exposure to 20° C. and 95° C. for a composite perovskite-containing film containing PAA and using MeOH as the intercalation molecule, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. Note that 95° C. was chosen to increase the thermochromic switching speed.

FIG. 9C illustrates visible transmittance (VT) data of over 200 thermochromic switching cycles of alternating exposure to 20° C. and 95° C. for a composite perovskite-containing film containing PAA and using MeOH as the intercalation molecule, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. Note that 95° C. was chosen to increase the thermochromic switching speed.

FIG. 10 illustrates transmission data of a smart window using H₂O as the intercalation molecule over 100 cycles of alternation exposure to 95° C. (colored state) and 20° C. (bleached state), according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 11 illustrates aspects of the present invention, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure: In-situ wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) data collected on a switchable MHP film prepared with 4:1 MAI:PbI₂. Panel A) Two cycles of alternating exposure to MeOH vapor and 75° C. Comparison of MAI (100), MAPbI₃ (100), a “third” phase, and MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH (200) peak area Panel B) and Scherrer size Panel C) over one cycle of exposure to MeOH and 75° C. in Panel A). Panel C) Two cycles of alternating exposure to MeOH and H₂O vapor at room temperature. Comparison of MAI (100), MAPbI₃ (100), a “third” phase, MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH (200), and MA₄PbI₆•2H₂O (101) peak area Panel C) and Scherrer size Panel F) over two cycles of alternating exposure to MeOH and H₂O vapor in Panel C. The 2θ axes are relative to Cu Kα (1.5406 Å, 8.04 eV) radiation and were calculated from Q =4πsin(θ)/λ where λ is the excitation wavelength. Fits and standard deviation error bars in Panels B, C, E, and F) were obtained by fitting peaks in Panels A and C) to a Voigt function.

FIG. 12 illustrates a typical absorption of the same switchable MHP film exposed to Panel A) MeOH, H₂O, and heat and Panel B) two cycles of alternating exposure to MeOH and H₂O, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. Inset in Panel B) shows the excitonic peak (λ_max) during cycling.

FIG. 13A illustrates In-situ wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) data collected on a composite perovskite-containing film without polymer incorporation over two cycles of exposure to Panel A) H₂O and Panel B) MeOH followed by heating to 75° C. and then cooling to 30° C., according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The 2θ axes are relative to Cu Kα (1.5406 Å, 8.04 eV) radiation and was calculated from Q =4πsin(θ)/λ where λ is the excitation wavelength.

FIG. 13B illustrates In-situ wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) data collected on a composite perovskite-containing film containing PEG over two cycles of exposure to Panel A) H₂O and Panel B) MeOH followed by heating to 75° C. and then cooling to 30° C., according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The 2θ axes are relative to Cu Kα (1.5406 Å, 8.04 eV) radiation and was calculated from Q =4πsin(θ)/λ where λ is the excitation wavelength.

FIG. 13C illustrates In-situ wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) data collected on a composite perovskite-containing film containing PVA over two cycles of exposure to Panel A) H₂O and Panel B) MeOH followed by heating to 75° C. and then cooling to 30° C., according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The 2θ axes are relative to Cu Kα (1.5406 Å, 8.04 eV) radiation and was calculated from Q =4πsin(θ)/λ where λ is the excitation wavelength.

FIG. 13D illustrates In-situ wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) data collected on a composite perovskite-containing film containing PAA over two cycles of exposure to Panel A) H₂O and Panel B) MeOH followed by heating to 75° C. and then cooling to 30° C., according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The 2θ axes are relative to Cu Kα (1.5406 Å, 8.04 eV) radiation and was calculated from Q =4πsin(θ)/λ where λ is the excitation wavelength.

FIG. 13E illustrates In-situ wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) data collected on a composite perovskite-containing film containing excess MAI salt and MACl dopant over two cycles of exposure to Panel A) H₂O and Panel B) MeOH followed by heating to 75° C. and then cooling to 30° C., according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The 2θ axes are relative to Cu Kα (1.5406 Å, 8.04 eV) radiation and was calculated from Q =4πsin(θ)/λ where λ is the excitation wavelength.

FIG. 13F illustrates In-situ wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) data collected on a composite perovskite-containing film containing excess MAI salt, MACl dopant, and PAA over two cycles of exposure to Panel A) H₂O and Panel B) MeOH followed by heating to 75° C. and then cooling to 30° C., according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The 2θ axes are relative to Cu Kα (1.5406 Å, 8.04 eV) radiation and was calculated from Q =4πsin(θ)/λ where λ is the excitation wavelength. Here “excess” refers to any amount of above the stoichiometric amount needed to make the perovskite, in this case, MAPbI₃. The ratio of MAI to PbI₂ is 1:1. Anything >1:1 (1.5:1, 2:1, 4:1, etc.) is excess. In addition to any excess MAI present in a formulation, it may also be “doped” with additional MACl.

REFERENCE NUMBERS
100  perovskite
110  A-cation
120  B-cation
130  X-anion
400  composite composition
400A colored state (i.e., opaque)
400B bleached state (i.e., transparent)
430  first phase
440  second phase
450  third phase
460  pore

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The embodiments described herein should not necessarily be construed as limited to addressing any of the particular problems or deficiencies discussed herein. References in the specification to “one embodiment”, “an embodiment”, “an example embodiment”, “some embodiments”, etc., indicate that the embodiment described may include a particular feature, structure, or characteristic, but every embodiment may not necessarily include the particular feature, structure, or characteristic. Moreover, such phrases are not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. Further, when a particular feature, structure, or characteristic is described in connection with an embodiment, it is submitted that it is within the knowledge of one skilled in the art to affect such feature, structure, or characteristic in connection with other embodiments whether or not explicitly described.

As used herein the term “substantially” is used to indicate that exact values are not necessarily attainable. By way of example, one of ordinary skill in the art will understand that in some chemical reactions 100% conversion of a reactant is possible, yet unlikely. Most of a reactant may be converted to a product and conversion of the reactant may asymptotically approach 100% conversion. So, although from a practical perspective 100% of the reactant is converted, from a technical perspective, a small and sometimes difficult to define amount remains. For this example of a chemical reactant, that amount may be relatively easily defined by the detection limits of the instrument used to test for it. However, in many cases, this amount may not be easily defined, hence the use of the term “substantially”. In some embodiments of the present invention, the term “substantially” is defined as approaching a specific numeric value or target to within 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or within 1% of the value or target. In further embodiments of the present invention, the term “substantially” is defined as approaching a specific numeric value or target to within 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, or 0.1% of the value or target.

As used herein, the term “about” is used to indicate that exact values are not necessarily attainable. Therefore, the term “about” is used to indicate this uncertainty limit. In some embodiments of the present invention, the term “about” is used to indicate an uncertainty limit of less than or equal to ±20%, ±15%, ±10%, ±5%, or ±1% of a specific numeric value or target. In some embodiments of the present invention, the term “about” is used to indicate an uncertainty limit of less than or equal to ±1%, ±0.9%, ±0.8%, ±0.7%, ±0.6%, ±0.5%, ±0.4%, ±0.3%, ±0.2%, or ±0.1% of a specific numeric value or target.

Among other things, the present disclosure describes a mesoscopic building energy model that demonstrates reduced building energy consumption when thermochromic windows are employed. Savings are realized across eight disparate climate zones of the United States. This model was then used to determine the ideal critical transition temperature between about 20° C. and about 27.5° C., inclusively, for thermochromic windows based on metal halide perovskite materials. Similar transition temperatures were then achieved experimentally using composite compositions that included metal halide perovskites, methanol and/or water as an intercalating switching molecule, excess salt (e.g., excess methylammonium iodide (MAI) with our without additional methylammonium chloride (MACl)), and a polymer positioned in a different phase, referred to herein as a second phase, with the perovskite (in at least one of a 3D, 2D, 1D, or 0D form) making up a first phase, where each phase occupies a separate and distinct volume within the composite composition. As shown herein, each component (switching molecule, excess salt, and polymer) tailors hydrogen bonding in the composite perovskite composition to significantly reduce the activation energy needed for the colored-to-bleached transition, thereby reducing the critical transition temperature, T_C, at which the transition occurs. Therefore, the composite compositions, and the resultant thermochromic windows based on metal halide perovskites described herein represent a clear opportunity to mitigate the effects of energy-consuming buildings. More details on the different phases contained in these composite compositions are provided below.

As defined herein, the term “perovskite” refers to compositions having a network of corner-sharing BX₆ octahedra resulting in the general stoichiometry of ABX₃. FIGS. 1A and 1B illustrate that perovskites 100, for example metal halide perovskites, may organize into a three-dimensional (3D) cubic crystalline structures (i.e., α-phase or α-ABX₃) constructed of a plurality of corner-sharing BX₆ octahedra. In the general stoichiometry for a perovskite, ABX₃, X (130) is an anion and A (110) and B (120) are cations, typically of different sizes. FIG. 1A illustrates that a perovskite 100 having an α-phase structure may be further characterized by eight BX₆ octahedra surrounding a central A-cation 110, where each octahedra is formed by six X-anions 130 surrounding a central B-cation 120 and each of the octahedra are linked together by “corner-sharing” of anions, X (130).

Panel A of FIG. 1B provides another visualization of a perovskite 100 in the α-phase, also referred to as the cubic phase. This is because, as shown in FIG. 1B, a perovskite in the α-phase may be visualized as a cubic unit cell, where the B-cation 120 is positioned at the center of the cube, an A-cation 110 is positioned at each corner of the cube, and an X-anion 130 is face-centered on each face of the cube. Panel B of FIG. 1B provides another visualization of the cubic unit cell of an α-phase perovskite, where the B-cation 120 resides at the eight corners of a cube, while the A-cation 110 is located at the center of the cube and with 12 X-anions 130 centrally located between B-cations 120 along each edge of the unit cell. For both unit cells illustrated in FIG. 1B, the A-cations 110, the B-cations 120, and the X-anions 130 balance to the general formula ABX₃ of a perovskite, after accounting for the fractions of each atom shared with neighboring unit cells. For example, referring to Panel A of FIG. 1B, the single B-cation 120 atom is not shared with any of the neighboring unit cells. However, each of the six X-anions 130 is shared between two unit cells, and each of the eight A-cations 110 is shared between eight unit cells. So, for the unit cell shown in Panel A of FIG. 1B, the stoichiometry simplifies to B = 1, A = 8*0.125 = 1, and X = 6*0.5=3, or ABX₃. Similarly, referring again to Panel B of FIG. 1B, since the A-cation is centrally positioned, it is not shared with any of the unit cells neighbors. However, each of the 12 X-anions 130 is shared between four neighboring unit cells, and each of the eight B-cations 120 is shared between eight neighboring unit cells, resulting in A = 1, B = 8 *0.125 = 1, and X = 12*0.25 = 3, or ABX₃. Referring again to Panel B of FIG. 1B, the X-anions 130 and the B-cations 120 of a perovskite in the α-phase are aligned along an axis; e.g., where the angle at the X-anion 130 between two neighboring B-cations 120 is exactly 180 degrees, referred to herein as the tilt angle. However, as shown in FIG. 2A, a perovskite 100 may assume other corner-sharing crystalline phases having tilt angles not equal to 180 degrees.

FIG. 2A illustrates that a perovskite can assume other crystalline forms while still maintaining the criteria of an ABX₃ stoichiometry with neighboring BX₆ octahedra maintaining X anion (130) corner-sharing. Thus, in addition to α-ABX₃ perovskites (in the cubic phase) having a tilt angle of 180 degrees, shown in Panel A of FIG. 2A, a perovskite may also assume a tetragonal crystalline phase (i.e., β-ABX₃) (see Panel B of FIG. 2A) and/or an orthorhombic crystalline phase (i.e., γ-ABX₃) (see Panel C of FIG. 2A), where the adjacent octahedra are tilted relative to the reference axes a, b, and c.

FIG. 2B illustrates that the elements used to construct a perovskite, as described above, A-cations 110, B-cations 120, and X-anions 130, may result in 3D non-perovskite structures; i.e., structures where neighboring BX₆ octahedra are not X-anion 130 corner-sharing and/or do not have a unit structure that simplifies to the ABX₃ stoichiometry. Referring to FIG. 2B, Panel A illustrates a perovskite in the cubic phase, i.e., α-ABX₃, compared to a non-perovskite structure constructed of face-sharing BX₆ octahedra resulting in a hexagonal crystalline structure (see Panel B of FIG. 2B) and a non-perovskite structure constructed of edge-sharing BX₆ octahedra resulting in an orthorhombic crystalline structure (see Panel C of FIG. 2B).

Further, referring now to FIG. 3, the elements used to construct a perovskite, as described above, A-cations 110, B-cations 120, and X-anions 130, may result in non-3D (i.e., lower dimensional structures) perovskite-like structures such as two-dimensional (2D) structures, one-dimensional (1D) structures, and/or zero-dimensional (0D) structures. As shown in FIG. 3, such lower dimensional, perovskite-like structures still include the BX₆ octahedra, and depending on the dimensionality, e.g., 2D or 1D, may still maintain a degree of X-anion corner-sharing. However, as shown in FIG. 3, the X-anion 130 corner-sharing connectivity of neighboring octahedra of such lower dimensional structures, i.e., 2D, 1D, and 0D, is disrupted by intervening A-cations 110. Such a disruption of the neighboring octahedra, can be achieved by, among other things, varying the size of the intervening A-cations 110.

Referring to Panel A of FIG. 3, a 3D perovskite may be transformed to a 2D perovskite-like structure, 1D perovskite-like structure, and/or 0D perovskite-like structure. Where the degree of X-anion 130 corner sharing decreases and the stoichiometry changes according to the formula (A′)_m(A)_n-1B_nX_3n+1, where monovalent (m = 2) or divalent (m = 1) A′ cations 110′ can intercalate between the X-anions of 2D perovskite-like sheets. Referring to Panel B of FIGS. 3, 1D perovskite-like structures are constructed by BX₆ octahedral chained segments spatially isolated from each other by surrounding bulky organic A′-cations 110′, leading to bulk assemblies of paralleled octahedral chains. Referring to Panel C of FIG. 3, typically, the 0D perovskite-like structures are constructed of isolated inorganic octahedral clusters and surrounded by small A′-cations 110′, which may be connected via hydrogen bonding. In general, as n approaches infinity the structure is a pure 3D perovskite and when n is equal to 1, the structure is a pure 2D perovskite-like structure. More specifically, when n is greater than 10 the structure is considered to be essentially a 3D perovskite material and when n is between 1 and 5, inclusively, the structure is considered substantially a 2D perovskite-like material.

For simplification, as used herein the term “perovskite” will refer to each of the structures illustrated in FIG. 1A through 3, unless specified otherwise. Thus, unless specified otherwise, the term “perovskite” as used herein includes each of a true corner-sharing ABX₃ perovskite, as illustrated in FIGS. 1A - 1B and Panel a) of FIG. 2A, as well as perovskite-like compositions having 0D, 1D, and/or 2D structures like those shown in FIG. 3.

In some embodiments of the present invention, the A-cation 110 may include a nitrogen-containing organic compound such as an alkyl ammonium compound. The B-cation 120 may include a metal and the X-anion 130 may include a halogen. Additional examples for the A-cation 110 include organic cations and/or inorganic cations, for example Cs, Rb, K, Na, Li, and/or Fr. Organic A-cations 110 may be an alkyl ammonium cation, for example a C_1-20 alkyl ammonium cation, a C_1-6 alkyl ammonium cation, a C_2-6 alkyl ammonium cation, a C_1-5 alkyl ammonium cation, a C_1-4 alkyl ammonium cation, a C_1-3 alkyl ammonium cation, a C_1-2 alkyl ammonium cation, and/or a C₁ alkyl ammonium cation. Further examples of organic A-cations 110 include methylammonium (CH₃NH₃⁺), ethylammonium (CH₃CH₂NH₃⁺), propylammonium (CH3CH2 CH₂NH₃⁺), butylammonium (CH₃CH₂ CH₂ CH₂NH₃⁺), formamidinium (NH₂CH=NH₂⁺), hydrazinium, acetylammonium, dimethylammonium, imidazolium, guanidinium, benzylammonium, phenethylammonium, butylammonium and/or any other suitable nitrogen-containing or organic compound. In other examples, an A-cation 110 may include an alkylamine. Thus, an A-cation 110 may include an organic component with one or more amine groups. For example, an A-cation 110 may be an alkyl diamine halide such as formamidinium (CH(NH₂)₂). Thus, the A-cation 110 may include an organic constituent in combination with a nitrogen constituent. In some cases, the organic constituent may be an alkyl group such as straight-chain or branched saturated hydrocarbon group having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms. In some embodiments, an alkyl group may have from 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Examples of alkyl groups include methyl (C₁), ethyl (C₂), n-propyl (C₃), isopropyl (C₃), n-butyl (C₄), tert-butyl (C₄), sec-butyl (C₄), iso-butyl (C₄), n-pentyl (C₅), 3-pentanyl (C₅), amyl (C₅), neopentyl (C₅), 3-methyl-2-butanyl (C₅), tertiary amyl (C₅), and n-hexyl (C₆). Additional examples of alkyl groups include n-heptyl (C₇), n-octyl (Cs) and the like.

Examples of metal B-cations 120 include, for example, lead, tin, germanium, and or any other 2+ valence state metal that can charge-balance the perovskite 100. Further examples include transition metals in the 2+ state such as Mn, Mg, Zn, Cd, and/or lanthanides such as Eu. B-cations may also include elements in the 3+ valence state, as described below, including for example, Bi, La, and/or Y. Examples for X-anions 130 include halogens: e.g., fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and/or astatine. In some cases, the perovskite halide may include more than one X-anion 130, for example pairs of halogens; chlorine and iodine, bromine and iodine, and/or any other suitable pairing of halogens. In other cases, the perovskite 100 may include two or more halogens of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and/or astatine.

Thus, the A-cation 110, the B-cation 120, and X-anion 130 may be selected within the general formula of ABX₃ to produce a wide variety of perovskites 100, including, for example, methylammonium lead triiodide (CH₃NH₃PbI₃), and mixed halide perovskites such as CH₃NH₃PbI_3-xCl_x and CH₃NH₃PbI_3-xBr_x. Thus, a perovskite 100 may have more than one halogen element, where the various halogen elements are present in non-integer quantities; e.g., x is not equal to 1, 2, or 3. In addition, perovskite halides, like other organic-inorganic perovskites, can form three-dimensional (3-D), two-dimensional (2-D), one-dimensional (1-D) or zero-dimensional (0-D) networks, possessing the same unit structure. As described herein, the A-cation 110 of a perovskite 100, may include one or more A-cations, for example, one or more of cesium, FA, MA, etc. Similarly, the B-cation 120 of a perovskite 100, may include one or more B-cations, for example, one or more of lead, tin, germanium, etc. Similarly, the X-anion 130 of a perovskite 100 may include one or more anions, for example, one or more halogens (e.g., at least one of I, Br, Cl, and/or F), thiocyanate, and/or sulfur. Any combination is possible provided that the charges balance.

For example, a perovskite having the basic crystal structure illustrated in FIGS. 1A and 1B, in at least one of a cubic, orthorhombic, and/or tetragonal structure, may have other compositions resulting from the combination of the cations having various valence states in addition to the 2+ state and/or 1+ state described above for lead and alkyl ammonium cations; e.g., compositions other than AB²⁺X₃ (where A is one or more cations, or for a mixed perovskite where A is two or more cations). Thus, the methods described herein may be utilized to create novel mixed cation materials having the composition of a double perovskite (elpasolites), A₂B¹⁺B³⁺X₆, with an example of such a composition being Cs₂BiAgCl₆ and Cs₂CuBiI₆. Another example of a composition covered within the scope of the present disclosure is described by A₂B⁴⁺X₆, for example Cs₂PbI₆ and Cs₂SnI₆. Yet another example is described by A₃B₂³⁺X₉, for example Cs₃Sb₂I₉. For each of these examples, A is one or more cations, or for a mixed perovskite, A is two or more cations.

As described herein, unique composite compositions are described that include a perovskite phase, i.e., first phase, and a second phase that were formulated and synthesized to yield switchable thermochromic films having, among other things, a very low critical transition temperatures (Tc), the approximate temperature or temperature range at which the perovskite phase switches from a substantially transparent state to a substantially opaque state. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, such composite compositions may include the perovskite phase (i.e., first phase), a switching molecule (i.e., intercalant, intercalating molecule), an AX salt (i.e., A-site cation/X-anion salt) not present as part of the perovskite crystal structure, referred to herein as “excess salt” (e.g., MAI or MAI and MACl), and a polymer. As described in more detail below at the AX salt and the polymer may be present in the composite composition as a second phase. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, such a second phase may also include a quantity of the switching molecule.

Because of the importance of the transition temperature, T_C, the impact of various compositions on Tc were investigated by formulating composite perovskite-based composites that incorporated excess salt (e.g., MACl) and polymer(s) (see Panel A) of FIG. 4A). The impact of the various polymers on T_C were investigated, including poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), polyacrylic acid (PAA), and polyethyleneimine. Each of these polymers has one or more distinct functional groups that can interact with components of the perovskite-containing compositions described herein (see Panel B) of FIG. 4A). Reversible switching of the composite perovskite-containing compositions between a substantially opaque state and a substantially transparent state was enabled by reversible hydration or methanolation (i.e., reversible intercalation/decalation of switching molecules water or methanol into the perovskite structure, respectively) to transform the three-dimensionally perovskite phase of the colored state into a bleached state (i.e., transparent) characterized by isolated [PbI₆]^4- groups surrounded by excess methylammonium halide (MAX, where X = I^- or Cl^-) and water or methanol(see FIG. 4B). Thermochromic composite perovskite-containing films were fabricated by spin-coating a solution of at a ratio of about 4:1 MAI:PbI₂ in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) onto glass, followed by annealing at about 100° C. for about 10 minutes under inert conditions. Films containing excess salt (e.g., MACl) were fabricated by spin-coating a solution 6.5:1 MAI:PbCl₂ in DMF onto glass followed by annealing at 100° C. for about 1 hour under inert conditions. Polymers were incorporated into the perovskite composite films by adding about one molar equivalent of the polymer (relative to the stoichiometric amount of BX₂ used to synthesize the perovskite) with respect to its monomer into the solutions described above.

Panel A) of FIG. 4A illustrates a composite composition 400 in both a colored state 400A and a bleached state 400B, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. Both the colored state 400A and the bleached state 400B of the composite composition 400 may include a first phase 430 and a second phase 440. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the first phase 430B and the second phase 440B may be at least partially in physical contact with each other. The first phase 430 may include a perovskite and the second phase 440 that may include some combination of the switching molecule (e.g., water or methanol), an A-site/X-anion salt (e.g., MAI and/or MACl), and a polymer. A second phase 440 may be present in a composite composition 400, whether the composition is in a colored state 400A or in a bleached state 400B. In addition, as described in detail herein, a composite composition 400 may include a third phase 450, dispersed within the first phase 430 (perovskite-containing phase), and one or more pores 460, also dispersed within the perovskite-containing first phase 430.

Referring again to Panel A) of FIG. 4A, when the composite composition is in the bleached phase 400B, the perovskite of the perovskite-containing first phase 430B may be substantially a 0D perovskite in either a hydrated form, when using water as a switching molecule, or a methanolated form when using methanol as a switching molecule. For the example of MA as the A-site cation, lead as the B-site cation, and iodide as the X-anion, the 0D compositions corresponding to the perovskite in the bleached state, using water or methanol as the switching molecule, are MA₄PbI₆·2H20 and MA₆PbI₈·2MeOH, respectively. When the composite composition 400 is switched to its colored state 400A, the 0D perovskite switches to the 3D crystalline state, for this example, MAPbI₃. In addition, as described herein, a third phase 450, may be present dispersed within the perovskite-containing phase 430B, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. As shown in FIG. 4A, this third phase 450 may be substantially, if not completely, reincorporated into the perovskite-containing phase 430A when the composite composition 400 is switched from the bleached state 400B to the colored state 400A. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a colored perovskite-containing first phase 430A may contain some amount of the third phase 450, but the amount will be less than the amount of third phase 450 present in the bleached perovskite-containing first phase 430B.

Referring again to Panel A) of FIG. 4A, a composite composition 400 may also include one or more pores 460 dispersed within the perovskite-containing first phase 430. These pores 460 may be most significantly present when the perovskite-containing first phase 430 is in the colored/opaque state. Thus, a pore 460 may be positioned in a colored first phase 430A. Further, the second phase 440A may be positioned between the pore 460 and the second phase 440A. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a bleached perovskite-containing first phase 430B may contain some quantity of pores 460, but the amount will be less than the amount of pores 460 present in the colored perovskite-containing first phase 430A.

In summary, when in the bleached state, a composite composition 400B may contain a first perovskite-containing phase 430B that includes a 0D perovskite in a complex with the switching molecule, a second phase 440B containing a salt, a polymer, and a switching molecule, and third phase 450. Each of these are describe in more detail below. When in the colored state, a composite composition 400A may contain a first perovskite-containing phase 430A that includes 3D perovskite substantially absent of the switching molecule, a second phase 440A containing a salt, a polymer, and the switching molecule, and a pore.

The crystal structure of the bleached (i.e., transparent) and colored (i.e., opaque) state of the composite films were unaffected by the inclusion of excess salt (e.g., MAI with our without MACl) or the polymer (see FIGS. 4C-E). The initial films in the opaque state exhibited a brown color, and wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) shows the (100) and (020) Bragg diffraction peaks of tetragonal MAPbI₃ and the (100), (200), (110), (011), (210), and (300) Bragg diffraction peaks of crystalline MAI. The calculated Scherrer crystalline domain size suggests that the initial films were composed of 39 ± 7 nm MAPbI₃ nanoparticles surrounded by a second phase that included MAI with a domain size of 50 ± 3 nm (see FIG. 4D). Incorporation of polymers into the composite film did not introduce new diffraction peaks, with the exception of additional crystalline peaks in the PEG thermochromic perovskite film at 0.50 Å-1, 1.29 Å^-1, and 1.32 Å^-1. The relative intensity ratios of the MAI peaks changed when polymers were introduced, which may be attributed to the incorporation of polymer into the MAI-containing second phase that disrupts the crystal packing of the MAI molecules along different planes. In addition, no new peaks arose due to incorporation of excess salt (the extra peak at 0.83 Å^-1 is due to residual hydrated phases) because MACl is known to evaporate from MAPbI₃ films during annealing to leave a small amount of chloride in the film. PAA decreased the relative intensity of the MAI when excess MACl salt was incorporated into the composite film (with a perovskite first phase and a second phase include excess salt and polymer), which is consistent with PAA incorporation into the second phase. Note that MAPbI₃ is describe below in detail as the perovskite used in the composite perovskite-containing compositions, other perovskite formulations are expected to perform similarly. Example of alternative perovskite compositions that may be used in some embodiment of the present disclosure include MA_(1-x-y)FA_xCs_yPbX₃, where both x and y are independently between zero and one, inclusively, and where X may be any combination of one or more halides (e.g., bromide, chloride, and/or iodide).

WAXS shows Bragg diffraction peaks consistent with composite perovskite films without polymer in the opaque state and upon conversion to the transparent state with H₂O or MeOH as switching molecules, which indicates each thermochromic mechanism is the same (see FIGS. 4C-E). Exposure to H₂O or MeOH vapor induced the disappearance of MAPbI₃ and MAI Bragg diffraction peaks with the emergence of (011) and (101) peaks characteristic of MA₄PbI₆•2H₂O (see FIG. 4D), the (200), (002), and (004) peaks characteristic of MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH (see FIG. 4E), and additional peaks at 0.82 Å^-1, 1.21 Å^-1, 1.34 Å^-1, 1.65 Å^-1, and 1.78 Å^-1 that are associated with methanolation (see FIG. 4E, gray vertical columns). Bragg diffraction peaks characteristic of hydration and methanolation disappeared when the composite thermochromic perovskite film was heated above Tc (see FIG. 4D).

Tc values were determined by heating transparent composite perovskite films until a color change was observed (i.e., until the composite perovskite-containing composition changed to a substantially opaque state), which corresponds to the switching molecule no longer disrupting the perovskite’s ABX₃ crystal structure. There are clear trends that relate to the polymer and/or excess salt incorporation with the switching molecules, H₂O (see FIG. 5A) or MeOH (see FIG. 5B). Exposure of thermochromic composite perovskite-containing films to H₂O vapor at a concentration of greater than about 35% relative humidity (RH) bleached the composite compositions due to the structural transformation of 3D MAPbI₃ to 0D MA₄PbI₆•2H₂O upon intercalation of the H₂O switching molecule. Heating the perovskite-containing composite compositions to above the Tc of the hydrated forms of the composite compositions (between about 70° C. and about 75° C., see FIG. 5C) reproduced the original brown color (see FIG. 5A) by dehydrating the composite composition, resulting in the conversion of 0D MA₄PbI₆•2H₂O back into 3D MAPbI₃ (see FIG. 4B). Similarly, composite perovskite-containing films incorporating polymer bleached upon exposure to greater than about 35% RH and then darkened upon heating above Tc (see FIG. 5A). It was found that the Tc of hydrated perovskite-containing compositions followed the trend: PEG (75-80° C.) > No Polymer (70-75° C.) > PVA (65-70° C.) > PAA (60-65° C.). Interestingly, even though incorporation of polymers affected Tc, they did not affect the time for bleaching to occur (t_bleach) upon hydration, with all of the composite perovskite-containing films tested exhibiting t_bleach in less than 15 seconds (see FIG. 5D).

Exposing the same composite perovskite-containing films to MeOH vapor also bleached the composite films (see FIG. 5B) due to the structural transformation of 3D MAPbI₃ into 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH (see FIG. 4E) upon intercalation of the MeOH switching molecule into the perovskite phase. Heating above the T_C of the methanolated composite perovskite-containing films (45-50° C., see FIG. 5C) reproduced the original brown color (see FIG. 5A) by demethanolating the composite film, resulting in conversion of 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH back into the 3D MAPbI₃ perovskite (see FIG. 4E). It was determined that the Tc of the composite perovskite-containing films was reduced when MeOH was used as the switching molecule, versus water, possibly because MeOH exhibits weaker H-bonding compared to H₂O. Specifically, the T_C of methanolated composite perovskite-containing films followed the trend: PEG (65-70° C.) > PVA (55-) > No Polymer (45-50° C.) > PAA (40-45° C.). In contrast to when water was used as the switching molecule, t_bleach varies significantly upon methanolation following the trend PEG (120-130 seconds) > PVA (90-105 seconds) > no polymer (75-90 s) ≅ PAA (75-90 seconds) (see FIG. 5D). The higher t_bleach times of methanolation compared to hydration suggests the driving force for methanolation is weaker than hydration.

As shown herein, incorporation of a small amount of AX salt can reduce Tc. For example, incorporation of excess MACl produced reddish films (see FIGS. 5A and 5B) with a significantly blue-shifted absorbance (see FIGS. 6A-6C), where “excess” refers to any MAI and MACl used beyond the stoichiometric amount of AX salt needed to form the ABX₃ perovskite, in this example MAPbI₃. The composite films were bleached (i.e., became transparent) upon exposure to both H₂O and MeOH switching molecules in the vapor phase, with lower Tc values between about 40° C. and about 45° C. for hydrated films and between about 30° C. and about 35° C. for methanolated films (see FIG. 5C). Without wishing to be bound by theory, the gradual loss of MACl during film formation suggests that Cl may influence the composite perovskite-containing film formation while a small amount of excess MACl in the composite film after annealing suggests that the MACl may facilitate the transformation by producing a hydrophilic interface between the MAPbI₃ perovskite phase (i.e., first phase) and a MAI matrix (i.e., second phase). Combining MACl-doping with the polymer in the second phase exhibited the lowest T_C, where the combination of PAA with excess MACl induced an even further drop in Tc to a range between about 30° C. and about 35° C. for hydrated films (using water as the switching molecule) and to a range between about 20° C. and about 25° C. for methanolated films (using methanol as the switching molecule) (see FIG. 5C). MACl alone in the second phase and the combination of excess MACl and PAA also further reduced t_bleach time when using methanol to a range between about 60 seconds and about 75 seconds for both thermochromic perovskite films.

As shown herein, incorporation of polymers and excess MACl salt into the second phase of the composite perovskite-containing composition allowed control of the Tc over a 45° C. or 50° C. range when H₂O or MeOH, respectively, was used as the switching molecule. In addition, MeOH as the switching molecule allowed control over the t_bleach time in a 60 second window. These results demonstrate the successful fabrication of a composite perovskite-containing composition (e.g., film) exhibiting a Tc within a desirable range between about 20° C. and about 27.5° C. through the co-incorporation of an excess salt (e.g., MACl) with a polymer (e.g., PAA) in a second phase (with the perovskite being the first phase) and by using MeOH as a switching molecule for inducing the reversible switching between a substantially opaque perovskite phase and a substantially transparent perovskite phase. The MACl-PAA-containing perovskite films with MeOH as the switching molecule exhibited the lowest Tc between about 20° C. and about 25° C. (see FIG. 5C) and the fastest t_bleach time upon methanolation between about 60 seconds and about 75 seconds (see FIG. 5D).

The colored-to-bleached transition occurs due to methylammonium halide (MAX, where X = I^- or Cl^-) molecules diffusing from the second phase of excess salt (e.g., MAX) and polymers into the perovskite phase stabilized by the intercalation of H₂O or MeOH switching molecules. T_C can be thought of as the energy required for the mass transfer of the excess salt to occur and is dictated by, among other things, the hydrogen bonds (H-bonds) in the composite composition. The H-bonds in the system are chemically diverse (see FIG. 7A), but the trends observed in T_C are easily rationalized by considering the number and strength of the different bonds. H-bonds are the thermodynamic driving force for chromism in the composite perovskite-containing films, and the chromic state is controlled by varying both the strength and number of H-bonds in the system

Both H₂O or MeOH switching molecules may hydrogen-bond with lead iodide in the perovskite first phase, as well as salt molecules (e.g., MAX) and polymers present in the second phase, thereby stabilizing the bleached state of the composite perovskite-containing composition. In the simplest system, where no polymer or excess salt is included, H-bond interactions between the switching molecules and the perovskite phase and the second phase made only of MAX dominate. The Gibbs free energy of H-bonding between MeOH as the switching molecule and other system components is less than that of H₂O resulting in a lower activation barrier. The fewer and weaker H-bonds of MeOH compared to H₂O in the perovskite phase results in a 25° C. decrease in T_C; less energy is needed to de-intercalate MeOH than H₂O. It was also determined that the weaker H bonding for MeOH results in increased t_bleach time for methanolation (between about 70 seconds and about 90 seconds) compared to hydration (< 15 seconds) (see FIG. 5D).

Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) was used to probe the H-bonding present in the composite compositions at the molecular level. ATR-FTIR spectra of composite films in the colored phase contain vibrational modes corresponding to MA in MAI and MAPbI₃, characterized by vibrational modes of the methylammonium molecules (N-H stretching between 2900-3250 cm-1, N-H bending centered at 1557 cm^-1, N-H rocking centered at 1243 cm^-1, and C-N stretching centered at 970 cm^-1) (see FIG. 8A). Introduction of an intercalating switching molecule produced characteristic O-H stretching from H₂O or MeOH along with C-H asymmetric stretching, C-H symmetric stretching, and C-O stretching vibrational modes at 3440 cm^-1, 2970 cm^-1, 2830 cm^-1, and 1013 cm^-1, respectively, for MeOH (see FIGS. 8A-8C). As expected, heating the film above Tc caused vibrational modes corresponding to H₂O and MeOH to disappear. The characteristic opaque phase (MAPbI3) peak is centered at 3000 cm^-1. That peak is also there for the transparent phase, but there is an added peak at 3400 cm-1 for the methanolated phase and 3500 cm^-1 for the hydrated phase. For the polymers, the characteristic peaks are: 1700 cm^-1 for poly acrylic acid (PAA) and 1100 cm^-1 for polyethylene glycol (PEG).

The N-H bond of methylammonium halide salt molecules is a unique indicator of the H-bonding environment in both colored and bleached states. The N-H bending mode due to its spectral isolation compared to other MA bonds was studied (see FIG. 7B). When no polymer was incorporated into the composite perovskite-containing films, the vibrational mode was centered at 1557 cm^-1. Upon exposure to H₂O or MeOH, the N-H mode shifted to higher energy, indicating a donation of electron density from the intercalated switching molecule to methylammonium, which is consistent with the bonding behavior between amines and hydroxyl groups. The N-H bending peak also broadened, which indicates a more chemically diverse bonding environment due to the presence of the intercalating switching molecule.

The addition of polymers to the composite perovskite-containing films was confirmed by ATR-FTIR from the presence of vibrational modes characteristic of the functional groups of the polymers: C-O stretching of PEG at 1098 cm^-1, O-H stretching of PVA between 3550 cm^-1 and 3300 cm^-1, C=O and C-O stretching of PAA at 1710 cm^-1 and 1170 cm^-1, respectively. Exposure of the perovskite-containing film to H₂O switching molecule vapor caused characteristic O-H stretching vibrational modes to appear centered at 3490 cm^-1 (see FIGS. 8A-8C). The N-H bending mode signal is a convolution of MA molecules that are in the perovskite phase and those that are in the second phase. The N-H bending mode is thus a measure of the influence of the polymers incorporated into the second phase (see FIG. 7C). For PAA, the N-H bending mode in the colored state blue shifted slightly to 1560 cm^-1 due to interactions with the carboxylic acid groups of the PAA. MeOH intercalation broadened and blue-shifted the peak by donating and accepting H-bonds with the carboxylic acid groups and the MeOH. H₂O further blue-shifted the N-H bending peak due to more and stronger H-bonds formed. A blueshift of between 5 and 20 cm^-1 to higher energies (wavenumber) indicates the formation of a hydrogen bond in the composite.

The same general blue-shifting trend was observed for PEG and PVA (see FIG. 7D) but to varying degrees. Blue shifting of N-H vibrational modes was comparable between polymers with H₂O as the switching molecule, whereas blue shifting was increased according to PEG < PVA < PAA with MeOH as the intercalating switching molecule. The trend is consistent with the types of H-bonds provided by each polymer. The ether group of PEG will only donate electron density (accept H-bonds), which results in blue-shifting of the N-H bond. In contrast, the acidic protons of in the hydroxyl and carboxylic acid groups of PVA and PAA, respectively, will accept and donate H-bonds. The ATR-FTIR signal of the N-H is a convolution of all H-bonds formed within the system, which results in a smaller overall shift due to also donating H-bonds to the polymer.

The trend in Tc between polymers is consistent with the polymer’s ability to form H-bonds. PEG consistently increased Tc relative to the composite perovskite-containing compositions without polymers, and PEG was the weakest H-bonding polymer. PAA, on the other hand, consistently decreased Tc relative to other composite compositions. The carboxylic acid groups of PAA form the strongest and highest number of bonds compared to the others, which resulted in the lowest Tc. PVA is in between PEG and PAA by decreasing T_C with H₂O and increasing Tc with MeOH relative to the composite perovskite-containing films without polymer. PVA’s hydroxyl group is also capable of accepting and donated H-bonds, though the bonds are weaker than those formed with carbonyl groups of carboxylic acid. It may be concluded that a larger Gibbs free energy of H-bonding between the polymer and other composite composition’s constituents (MAX and intercalating molecule) competes with the bonds formed in the Pb-I sublattice of the perovskite phase leading to a decrease in T_C.

The influence of excess MACl salt is not obvious from the N-H bond signal in ATR-FTIR. The N-H bending mode blue-shifted in the presence of Cl^- to a smaller degree than other samples. However, MACl is highly hygroscopic, whereas MAI is not. Cl^- is a hard Lewis base that will more readily accept H-bonds than I^-. Cl^- will provide stronger H-bond interactions within the reservoir and may intercalate into the perovskite phase when bleaching. Stronger bonds to the halide anion led to a decrease in Tc.

Taken together, the trend in Tc as a function of the perovskite composites studied herein may be understood in terms of a decrease in the activation energy between the bleached and colored states. Methanol’s weaker H-bonds relative to water (ΔG^‡_HOH-MAX >ΔG^‡_MeOH-MAX), the polymer functional groups stronger and more prevalent H-bonds compared to bonding with the Pb-I sublattice of the perovskite phase (G^‡_poly-MAX>ΔG^‡_PbI-MAX), and stronger interactions with the halide anion (ΔG^‡_ROH-MACl>ΔG^‡_ROH-MAI) collectively resulted in a T_C within an ideal range for thermochromic windows.

The polymers used in this study contained 11k-130k monomers connected in long chains with functional groups capable of H-bonding with MAX salts contained in the second phase. These long-chain polymers induced the formation of pores throughout the composite perovskite-containing films (see Panel A of FIG. 9A colored) and subsequent exposure of the film to intercalating switching molecules led to a significant decrease in pore density (see Panel A of FIG. 9A bleached). The overall thickness of the film was maintained within statistical error during the transformation (colored 250 ± 20 nm; bleached 240 ± 7 nm), which suggests that the expected volume expansion that should result upon intercalation occurred within the void space of the pores rather than increasing the overall thickness of the film. Heating the film above Tc reformed the pores while maintaining the film thickness. These observations suggest that the polymers are likely located around the pores in the colored (i.e., opaque) state and at grain boundaries in the bleached (i.e., transparent) state (see FIG. 4A).

In addition to having a low Tc and rapid switching time, smart windows need to be durable. Cyclability of composite perovskite-containing films is currently limited by delamination and composite perovskite-containing film reorganization upon repeated intercalation/de-intercalation as well as deprotonation of MAI upon prolonged exposure to H₂O (see FIG. 10). The thermochromic perovskite films described herein, containing polymers, are porous with the polymers located at the thermochromic perovskite/pore interface and that volume expansion occurs inward through the pores rather than outward, which often results in an increase in perovskite film thickness. Thermochromic perovskite films with this morphology should have improved mechanical stability to delamination and cracking. In addition, thermochromic perovskite films that switch with MeOH exhibit a small driving force for MAI deprotonation due to the higher acidity of MeOH vapor compared to H₂O. Since the polymers are also contained within the second phase of the composite perovskite-containing compositions, the second phase (including the excess salt) may also be positioned adjacent to pores; i.e., the second phase may share an interface with one or more pores.

In addition, smart windows were fabricated using composite perovskite-containing films containing PAA described herein, by sealing the perovskite-containing film within two pieces of glass containing an atmosphere of N₂/MeOH with polyisobutylene (PIB) sealing the edges (see Panel B of FIG. 9A). As shown herein, smart windows with this architecture became colored when heated above T_C and bleached when cooled below T_C. The visible light transmittance (VT) of these smart windows cycled between 31% in the colored state and 84% in the bleached state (see FIGS. 9B and 9C). Remarkably, these smart windows also retained 77% of the initial VT in the bleached state and 80% in the colored state over 200 cycles. This result is the most cycles reported in thermochromic perovskite films to date. Windows were placed on a hotplate with the coated glass pane in direct contact with the hotplate to simulate solar and ambient exposure of an outboard pane of an insulating glass unit.

In addition to the experiments described above, the reversible cycling of a perovskite-containing composition as a result of methanolation was also studied (in the absence of a polymer). Among other things, these studies show that MAPbI₃ reversibly forms stable complexes with methanol (MeOH), with salt and/or polymer present in the adjacent second phase.

Switchable perovskite films were fabricated by spin-coating a solution of 4:1 MAI:PbI₂ in DMF under inert conditions followed by annealing at 100° C. for 10 min (see Experimental section for more details). The visual appearance of initial films was transparent with a reddish-brown color. Exposure of the polymer-free films to H₂O or MeOH vapor by bubbling N₂ through the respective solvent induced a rapid structural transformation that resulted in a transparent and colorless film. The transformation occurred in less than 5 minutes and decreased with increasing N₂ flow rate. The film was then regenerated to the original reddish-brown color by gently heating the films exposed to H₂O and MeOH at 70° C. or 50° C., respectively. These observations suggest a complex between the solvent vapor and the perovskite phase is formed that requires a minimum thermal energy threshold for complex dissociation.

Attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy confirmed H₂O and MeOH switching molecules were incorporated into the polymer-free perovskite film upon exposure to vapor and removed after heating (see Table 1). As shown herein, only MeOH formed a complex with the switchable perovskite films studied, whereas exposure to EtOH or isopropyl alcohol (IPA) vapor did not result in a color change. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the EtOH and IPA may be too large to fit into the perovskite structure and the H-bonding strength may be too weak to form a complex at standard conditions.

ATR-FTIR peaks of thermochromic MHP films exposed to MeOH, H2O, and heat.
Spectruma	Species	Wavenumber (cm-1)	Assignment
Initial/Heated	MAPbI3 + MAI	905	C-H rocking
		989	C-N stretching
		1242	N-H rocking
		1403	C-H symmetric bending
		1470	N-H symmetric bending
		1565	N-H asymmetric bending
		2900-3250	C-H/N-H stretching
MeOH	MA6PbI8•2MeOH	1014	C-O stretching
		2832	C-H symmetric stretching
		2960	C-H asymmetric stretching
		3365	O-H stretching
H2O	MA4PbI6•2H2O	3435	O-H stretching
aPeaks assignments corresponding to MA, MeOH, and H2O.

Referring again to polymer-free perovskite-containing compositions, the mechanism of color change may be attributed to an equilibrium that exists between 0D complex formation upon exposure to H₂O or MeOH (bleached/transparent state) and complex dissociation into 3D MAPbI₃ nanocrystals embedded within an excess MAI matrix upon gentle heating (colored/opaque state). Complex formation and dissociation, among other things, may be dictated by H-bond interactions between the vapor molecule and the perovskite phase. The MeOH complex dissociates at lower temperatures (50° C.) than the H₂O complex (70° C.), which suggests MeOH forms weaker H-bonds with the perovskite phase than H₂O. MeOH typically exhibits weaker H-bonding than H₂O because it has one electropositive proton instead of two.

Unlike switchable perovskite-containing films exposed to H₂O switching molecules that form the 0D MA₄PbI₆•2H₂O hydrate complex, the weaker H-bonding of MeOH switching molecules causes films to form a OD MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH structure that is richer in MAI than the hydrated complex. MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH was simulated from the crystal structure of PEA₆SnBr₈•2CCl₂H₂ (PEA = phenethylammonium) by modifying elemental composition and maintaining the monoclinic Cc space group. The best fit after Rietveld refinement was obtained with a = 13.495812 Å, b = 7.758366 Å, c = 20.429327 Å, α = γ = 90 °, and β = 102.76711 °. The structure of the 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH complex forms sheets of isolated [PbI₆]⁴⁺ octahedra that allow the larger MeOH molecule to occupy the space between sheets whereas the 0D MA₄PbI₆•2H₂O hydrate complex forms an isotropic network of hydrated [PbI₆]⁴⁺ octahedra.

The 0D methanolated perovskite structure was identified using in-situ wide angle X-ray scattering (WAXS). Reddish-brown films show expected Bragg diffraction peaks that correspond to a mixture of 3D MAPbI₃ (first phase) and MAI (second phase) (see Panel A) of FIG. 11). All 3D MAPbI₃ peaks disappeared, and MAI peaks decreased in intensity over the course of about 90 seconds after exposing the film to MeOH vapor by flowing He through an MeOH bubbler. New peaks emerged that correspond to 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH, which appeared between about 45 seconds and about 60 seconds and gain scattering intensity until about 2 minutes and 45 seconds, which correspond to the compositions first perovskite-containing phase. Diffraction peaks from a third phase, positioned within the first phase, associated with methanolation also emerged between about 45 seconds and about 60 seconds, but growth occurred faster with maximum scattering intensity occurring after about 1 minute and 30 seconds.

Annealing the film above 50° C. initiated complex dissociation: first by the disappearance of XRD peaks associated with 0D MA₄PbI₆•2MeOH and third phase over the first 5 minutes, which correlates to the conversion of the first phase in the 0D crystalline structure and the third phase, back to the first phase in the 3D crystalline structure. The 3D MAPbI₃ peaks simultaneously reemerged over about 2 minutes and 45 seconds. Scherrer analysis performed on the (100) peak of 3D MAPbI₃ indicates the single crystalline domain size was maintained with values of 36 ± 3 nm before complex formation and 37 ± 4 nm after complex dissociation (see Panel C) of FIG. 11). The Scherrer size of 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH and the third phase is larger than the 3D MAPbI₃ phase, which suggests that larger domains were formed when the adjacent MAI phase was incorporated into the 3D MAPbI₃ domains. Formation of the third phase before 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH and dissociation of the third phase after 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH suggests that the third phase is likely a structural intermediate between 3D MAPbI₃ and 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH that stabilizes the 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH structure and balances the stoichiometry of the excess MAI.

Attempts were made to identify the third phase. The intensity and FWMH evolution of the unknown peaks suggest it is a single phase independent from 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH (see Panels B) and C) of FIG. 11). The methanolated composite perovskite-containing composition also contains peaks corresponding to crystalline MAI, which suggests the third phase does not form in a 1:1 ratio and is likely poorer in MAI and richer in PbI₂ relative to the 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH phase. The 1D diffraction patterns were fit to various known polymorphs of low-dimensional MHP phases such as APb₂I₅, A₂PbI₄, A₃PbI₅, and A₄PbI₆ with and without intercalating molecules.

Switchable MHP films were readily interconverted between methanolated and hydrated complexes by changing the chemical potential of the system through Le Chatelier’s Principle. In-situ WAXS shows that exposing a methanolated film to H₂O vapor initiated a rapid transformation from a 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH perovskite phase and the third phase associated with methanolation to a 0D MA₄PbI₆•2H₂O perovskite phase in under 15 seconds (see Panels D) and E) of FIG. 11). This transformation was reversed at a slightly slower rate of 30 seconds by exposing the hydrated film to MeOH vapor. The rapid conversion between methanolated and hydrated films (< 30 seconds) relative to the process of methanolating or hydrating a colored film containing a 3D MAPbI₃ perovskite phase and MAI-containing second phase (> 1 minute) suggests that exchanging MeOH/H₂O has a smaller thermodynamic driving force than intercalating MeOH/H₂O because the [PbI₆]⁴⁺ octahedra in the perovskite phase are already separated.

The structural transformations between 3D and 0D perovskite phases were accompanied by reversible optical coloration and bleaching (corresponding to the terms opaque and transparent, respectively). Optical absorption measurements show that the initial switchable perovskite-containing films exhibit strong absorbance in the visible region with a VT of 38% and a band gap of 1.80 eV (see Panel A) of FIG. 12), which is larger than the typical 1.57 eV band gap observed for MAPbI₃. The larger band gap is likely caused by surface strain on 3D MAPbI₃ nanocrystals embedded within a MAI second phase. Exposure of the initial switchable perovskite-containing film to MeOH or H₂O induced a structural transformation from 3D to 0D that resulted in optical bleaching of the film in the visible region with VT increasing to 64% and 75%, respectively, along with the emergence of a strong excitonic peak at 379 and 370 nm, respectively. Heating the methanolated film above 50° C. and the hydrated film above 70° C. initiated complex dissociation from 0D to 3D resulting in the re-emergence of the 1.80 eV band gap and absorbance in the visible region.

The excitonic absorption peaks are due to absorption of the isolated [PbI₆]⁴⁺ octahedra that are formed when H₂O and MeOH intercalate into the 3D MAPbI₃ perovskite phase. H₂O and MeOH are readily exchanged to reversibly transform the film from the hydrated to the methanolated phases, which is accompanied by a shift in the peak absorbance (λ_max) from 379 nm to 370 nm and a decreased baseline (see Panel B) of FIG. 12). The energy of the [PbI₆]⁴⁺ excitonic peak increases with more isolation and decreases with less isolation. The methanolated film has a lower energy excitation peak compared to the hydrated film because [PbI₆]⁴⁺ octahedra are less isolated. The structure of the 0D MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH perovskite phase contains sheets of closely packed octahedra that are separated by only MAI whereas the sheets are separated by both MeOH and MAI in the orthogonal direction. In contrast, the structure of 0D MA₄PbI₆•2H₂O perovskite phase contains an isotropic 3D network of isolated octahedra that are separated by both MAI and H₂O leading to increased separation of isolated octahedra. The methanolated films also exhibited increased absorbance at wavelengths lower than 550 nm compared to hydrated films (see FIG. 12), which may be attributed to formation of the third phase.

In conclusion, we show that perovskites form 0D complexes with MeOH. 0D complex formation is driven by H-bonding between MeOH and the perovskite phase. MeOH within the 0D perovskite phase is reversibly exchanged for H₂O at room temperature upon exposure to excess vapor, which induces a change in the chemical potential of the system through Le Chatelier’s Principle. The 0D complex can be dissociated to regenerate the 3D perovskite structure by removing MeOH through mild heating above 50° C. These results demonstrate a new intercalation complex formed between perovskites and MeOH that has a lower switching temperature compared to H₂O analogues enabling next-generation stimuli-responsive switchable perovskite applications.

EXAMPLES

Example 1. A composition comprising: a first phase comprising a perovskite; and a second phase comprising a salt, a polymer, and a switching molecule, wherein: the first phase and the second phase are in physical contact, the composition is capable of reversibly switching between a substantially opaque state and a substantially transparent state, when in the opaque state, the perovskite is an opaque perovskite comprising a three-dimensional (3D) perovskite, when in the transparent state, the perovskite is a transparent perovskite comprising a zero-dimensional (0D) perovskite that is in a complex with the switching molecule, and the first phase switches between the opaque state and transparent state when the composition transitions through a critical temperature, T_c, between about 20° C. and about 95° C.

Example 2. The composition of Example 1, wherein T_c is between about 20° C. and about 75° C.

Example 3. The composition of Example 2, wherein T_c is between about 20° C. and about 25° C.

Example 4. The composition of Example 1, wherein the switching molecule comprises at least one of water, methanol, ethanol, propanol, or butanol.

Example 5. The composition of Example 1, wherein the switching molecule comprises at least one of water or methanol.

Example 6. The composition of Example 1, wherein: the opaque perovskite comprises ABX₃, and A comprises a first cation, B comprises a second cation, and X comprises a first anion.

Example 7. The composition of Example 1, wherein: the transparent perovskite comprises A, B, and X at a ratio of AX to BX that is greater than 1.0.

Example 8. The composition of Example 6, wherein the transparent perovskite comprises at least one of A₆BX₈ or A₄BX₆.

Example 9. The composition of Example 8, wherein the transparent perovskite further comprises at least one of A₆BX₈•2MeOH or A₄BX₆•2H₂O.

Example 10. The composition of Example 6, wherein A comprises at least one of methyl ammonium, formamidinium, or cesium.

Example 11. The composition of Example 6, wherein B comprises at least one of lead, tin, germanium, or a transition metal.

Example 12. The composition of Example 6, wherein X comprises a halide.

Example 13. The composition of Example 1, wherein: the salt comprises at least one of AX or AX´, and X′ comprises a second anion.

Example 14. The composition of Example 1, wherein the polymer comprises carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Example 15. The composition of Example 14, wherein the polymer comprises at least one of an ether linkage, a ketone linkage, an amide linkage, a hydroxyl group, or a carboxylic acid group.

Example 16. The composition of Example 15, wherein the polymer comprises at least one of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), polyacrylic acid (PAA), or polyethyleneimine.

Example 17. The composition of Example 1, wherein the polymer is present at a concentration between about 0.1 wt% and about 50 wt% relative to the transparent perovskite.

Example 18. The composition of Example 1, further comprising a plurality of pores that are present within the first phase in the opaque state and substantially absent in the translucent state.

Example 19. The composition of Example 18, where the pores are present at a concentration between about 0.1 vol% and about 70 vol% relative to the opaque perovskite.

Example 20. The composition of Example 18, wherein: the perovskite comprises a plurality of grains separated by a plurality of grain boundaries, at least a portion of the polymer is positioned at at least one of adjacent to the pores or within the pores while in the opaque state, and at least a portion of the polymer is positioned at at least one of adj acent to the grain boundaries or within the grain boundaries while in the transparent state.

Example 21. The composition of Example 20, wherein each grain has a characteristic length between about 1 nm and about 10,000 nm.

Example 22. The composition of Example 1, wherein the polymer forms a non-covalent bond with the opaque perovskite, and the polymer forms a non-covalent bond with the switching molecule while in the transparent state.

Example 23. The composition of Example 22, wherein the polymer forms a non-covalent bond with the salt.

Example 24. The composition of Example 1, wherein the salt forms a non-covalent bond with the opaque perovskite.

Example 25. The composition of Example 13, wherein the salt provides at least one of X′ or excess of X.

Example 26. The composition of Example 25, wherein the at least one of X′ or excess of X is present at a concentration between about 1 mol% and about 1000 mol% relative to the halide present in ABX₃.

Example 27. The composition of Example 25, further comprising a third cation that charge balances the at least one of X′ or excess of X.

Example 28. The composition of Example 27, wherein the third cation comprises at least one of methyl ammonium (MA), formamidinium (FA), or cesium.

Example 29. The composition of Example 6, wherein the opaque perovskite comprises MAPbI₃.

Example 30. The composition of Example 8, wherein the transparent perovskite comprises at least one of MA₆PbI₈ or MA₄PbI₆.

Example 31. The composition of Example 30, wherein the transparent perovskite further comprises at least one of MA₆PbI₈•2MeOH or MA₄PbI₆•2H₂O.

Example 32. The composition of Example 13, wherein the salt comprises at least one of MAX, MAX´, FAX, FAX´, CsX, or CsX′.

The foregoing discussion and examples have been presented for purposes of illustration and description. The foregoing is not intended to limit the aspects, embodiments, or configurations to the form or forms disclosed herein. In the foregoing Detailed Description for example, various features of the aspects, embodiments, or configurations are grouped together in one or more embodiments, configurations, or aspects for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. The features of the aspects, embodiments, or configurations, may be combined in alternate aspects, embodiments, or configurations other than those discussed above. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the aspects, embodiments, or configurations require more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive aspects lie in less than all features of a single foregoing disclosed embodiment, configuration, or aspect. While certain aspects of conventional technology have been discussed to facilitate disclosure of some embodiments of the present invention, the Applicants in no way disclaim these technical aspects, and it is contemplated that the claimed invention may encompass one or more of the conventional technical aspects discussed herein. Thus, the following claims are hereby incorporated into this Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate aspect, embodiment, or configuration.

Claims

1. A composition comprising: a first phase comprising a perovskite; anda second phase comprising a salt, a polymer, and a switching molecule, wherein:the first phase and the second phase are in physical contact,the composition is capable of reversibly switching between a substantially opaque state and a substantially transparent state,when in the opaque state, the perovskite is an opaque perovskite comprising a three-dimensional (3D) perovskite,when in the transparent state, the perovskite is a transparent perovskite comprising a zero-dimensional (0D) perovskite that is in a complex with the switching molecule, andthe first phase switches between the opaque state and transparent state when the composition transitions through a critical temperature, Tc, between about 20° C. and about 95° C.

2. The composition of claim 1, wherein Tc is between about 20° C. and about 75° C.

3. The composition of claim 2, where Tc is between about 20° C. and about 25° C.

4. The composition of claim 1, wherein the switching molecule comprises at least one of water, methanol, ethanol, propanol, or butanol.

5. The composition of claim 1, wherein the switching molecule comprises at least one of water or methanol.

6. The composition of claim 1, wherein: the opaque perovskite comprises ABX3, andA comprises a first cation, B comprises a second cation, and X comprises a first anion.

7. The composition of claim 1, wherein: the transparent perovskite comprises A, B, and X at a ratio of AX to BX that is greater than 1.0.

8. The composition of claim 6, wherein the transparent perovskite comprises at least one of A6BX8 or A4BX6.

9. The composition of claim 8, wherein the transparent perovskite further comprises at least one of A6BX8•2MeOH or A4BX6•2H2O.

10. The composition of claim 6, wherein A comprises at least one of methyl ammonium, formamidinium, or cesium.

11. The composition of claim 6, wherein B comprises at least one of lead, tin, germanium, or a transition metal.

12. The composition of claim 6, wherein X comprises a halide.

13. The composition of claim 1, wherein: the salt comprises at least one of AX or AX´, andX′ comprises a second anion.

14. The composition of claim 1, wherein the polymer comprises carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

15. The composition of claim 14, wherein the polymer comprises at least one of an ether linkage, a ketone linkage, an amide linkage, a hydroxyl group, or a carboxylic acid group.

16. The composition of claim 15, wherein the polymer comprises at least one of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), polyacrylic acid (PAA), or polyethyleneimine.

17. The composition of claim 1, wherein the polymer is present at a concentration between about 0.1 wt% and about 50 wt% relative to the transparent perovskite.

18. The composition of claim 1, further comprising a plurality of pores that are present within the first phase in the opaque state and substantially absent in the translucent state.

19. The composition of claim 18, where the pores are present at a concentration between about 0.1 vol% and about 70 vol% relative to the opaque perovskite.

20. The composition of claim 18, wherein: the perovskite comprises a plurality of grains separated by a plurality of grain boundaries,at least a portion of the polymer is positioned at at least one of adjacent to the pores or within the pores while in the opaque state, andat least a portion of the polymer is positioned at at least one of adjacent to the grain boundaries or within the grain boundaries while in the transparent state.

21. The composition of claim 6, wherein the opaque perovskite comprises MAPbI3.

22. The composition of claim 8, wherein the transparent perovskite comprises at least one of MA6PbI8 or MA4PbI6.

23. The composition of claim 22, wherein the transparent perovskite further comprises at least one of MA6PbI8•2MeOH or MA4PbI6•2H2O.

24. The composition of claim 13, wherein the salt comprises at least one of MAX, MAX´, FAX, FAX´, CsX, or CsX´.