TWO-DIMENSIONAL METAL CARBIDE DESALINATION MEMBRANE

Abstract

The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane includes a stack of two-dimensional metal carbide layers. A two-dimensional metal carbide included in the two-dimensional metal carbide layers may have the formula Ti3C2Tx, where T represents a terminating functional group, and x represents a number of the terminating functional groups. The terminating group may be oxygen, hydroxide (OH), fluorine or combinations thereof. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane includes nano-channels which are selectively permeable to ions. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane is selectivity permeable to a number of different cations, including Li+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Ni2+ and Al3+, with counter Cl− anions. Permeation rates depend on the charges of the cations and the ions' hydrated radius, with a critical point around 4.0 Å. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membranes can be used as desalination and/or water filtration membranes.

Description

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to membranes for desalination, water filtration and the like, and particularly to a membrane formed from stacked layers of a two-dimensional metal carbide.

BACKGROUND ART

A large number of water desalination and ion separation processes, such as reverse osmosis (RO), forward osmosis (FO), and membrane distillation (MD), depend on membranes for ion and organic matter removal. Although conventional membranes currently used in the separation industry are typically reliable and exhibit good separation performance, such materials often degrade when exposed to high temperatures and corrosive media (such as Cl₂, acids, bases and certain organic compounds). Further, fouling associated with particulate deposition, scaling and biofouling decrease the membranes' permeation rates and ultimately contribute to costly system maintenance. Degradation problems are especially prevalent in the Arabian Gulf, due to high salinity, high turbidity and elevated temperatures of the water. In order to operate in such environments, ultrafast water permeation membranes with good mechanical properties are critical for water purification and desalination.

A membrane should, ideally, be ultrathin (for high flux permeation), mechanically strong to withstand applied pressures, and have tunable pore distributions for excellent selectivity. Recently, nanostructures such as zeolites, metal organic frameworks, ceramics and carbon-based materials have attracted considerable attention as alternative membrane materials, specifically due to their relatively good chemical resistance, high flux, and high rejection rates. However, zeolite membranes have failed to realize economical fabrication on a large scale due to manufacturing costs, reproducibility and defect formation. Further, ceramic membranes are very brittle under high pressures, which limits their practical applications in membrane technologies.

Although it is possible to fabricate high-flux and high selectivity membranes from carbon nanotubes (CNTs), it is currently difficult to synthesize highly aligned and high density CNTs with large lengths. CNTs remain an active area of research for membrane technologies, but costs and operational issues have greatly hindered the development and integration of CNTs into large area membranes. Graphene oxide (GO) nano-sheets (i.e., sheets of two-dimensional material) have emerged recently as a new class of ultrathin, high-flux and energy-efficient sieving membranes. However, despite the great potential of nano-porous GO membranes, scalable production has been hindered by difficulties in fabricating large-area uniform GO membranes by spin coating and vacuum filtration techniques. Further, experimental studies have failed thus far to confirm theoretical predictions of orders of magnitude improvement in the membranes' selectivity and permeability when compared to current state-of-the-art filtration. Transport measurements through graphene have been limited to microscopic areas with few pores or multilayered graphene-oxide. Experimental findings in GO membranes showed that molecules travel a tortuous path through the interlayer region between flakes, and while such membranes have demonstrated selective transport, the measured permeability does not match the expected performance of porous single-layer graphene due to this longer path length.

Thus, a two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane addressing the aforementioned problems is desired.

DISCLOSURE OF INVENTION

The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane is formed from a stack of two-dimensional metal carbide layers. The two-dimensional metal carbide layers can include a two-dimensional metal carbide having the formula Ti₃C₂T_x, where T represents a terminating functional group, and x represents a number of the terminating functional groups. The terminating group may be oxygen, hydroxide (OH), fluorine or combinations thereof. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane can include nano-channels which are selectively permeable to ions. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane can be permeable to molecules, gases and water, with specific selectivity to a number of different cations, including Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Ni²⁺ and Al³⁺, with counter Cl⁻ anions. Permeation rates can depend on the charges of the cations and the ions' hydrated radius, with a critical point being around 4.0 Å. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membranes may be used as desalination and/or water filtration membranes. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membranes can be flexible. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membranes can have relatively high mechanical strength, hydrophilic surfaces, and relatively high conductivity.

The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane can include layers having a composite of the two-dimensional metal carbide and a polymer, such as polyvinyl alcohol. The stack of two-dimensional metal carbide layers or two-dimensional metal carbide-polymer composite layers may be supported on a polymeric filtering substrate, such as a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) supporting substrate.

These and other features of the present invention will become readily apparent upon further review of the following specification and drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a scanning electron micrograph of a cross-section of a two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane including layers of a two-dimensional metal carbide, according to the present invention.

FIG. 1B is a scanning electron micrograph of a cross-section of a two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane including layers of a composite of a two-dimensional metal carbide and a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).

FIG. 2A diagrammatically illustrates an experimental device for testing permeability of the two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane.

FIG. 2B is a graph showing permeability measurements as a function of time for cation permeation across the two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane, comparing permeability for Na⁺, Li⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Ni²⁺, Mg²⁺, and Al³⁺.

FIG. 3 is a graph showing selective permeation of Na⁺, Li⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Ni²⁺, Mg²⁺ and Al³⁺ cations through the two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane as a function of cation hydrated radius.

FIG. 4A is a graph showing a selective permeation comparison between the two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane of FIG. 1A and a conventional graphene oxide (GO) membrane as a function of cation hydrated radius.

FIG. 4B is a graph showing a selective permeation comparison between the two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane of FIG. 1A, the two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane of FIG. 1B, and the conventional graphene oxide (GO) membrane as a function of cation hydrated radius.

FIG. 5 shows X-ray diffraction patterns of the two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane of FIG. 1A in both a wet state and a dry state, both before and after permeation of MgCl₂.

Similar reference characters denote corresponding features consistently throughout the attached drawings.

BEST MODES FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION

The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane can include a plurality of two-dimensional metal carbide layers. The plurality of two-dimensional metal carbide layers can include a two-dimensional metal carbide, such as MXene. Preferably, the MXene included in the plurality of two-dimensional metal carbide layers has the formula Ti₃C₂T_x, where T represents a terminating functional group (O, OH and/or F) and x represents the number of terminating groups. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane can include nano-channels with specific selectivity to a number of different cations, including Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Ni²⁺ and Al³⁺, with counter Cl⁻ anions.

The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane can be formed from layers of a composite of the two-dimensional metal carbide and a polymer, such as polyvinyl alcohol. A stack of two-dimensional metal carbide layers or two-dimensional metal carbide-polymer composite layers may be supported on a polymeric filtering substrate, such as a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) supporting substrate.

The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane can have relatively high selectivity to ions and robust mechanical stability. As such, the two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane can be used for water desalination and/or water filtration applications. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane can have a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 2 μm, e.g., 1.3 μm to about 1.8 μm. Preferably, the two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane has a thickness of about 1.5 μm. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membranes can be flexible, have relatively high mechanical strength, have hydrophilic surfaces, and have relatively high conductivity. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane or layered structure can form nano-channels which are permeable to ions, molecules, gases and water, but with specific selectivity to a number of different cations, including Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Ni²⁺ and Al³⁺, with counter Cl⁻ anions. Permeation rates can rely on the ions' hydrated radius, with a critical point around 4.0 Å, and on the charges of the cations. The interlayer spacing parameter of the MXene layers and the negative charges on the MXene surfaces can affect the permeation of ions. For example, the interlayer spacings for dry and wet Ti₃C₂T_x membranes can be about 7.98 and 11.98 Å, respectively.

MXene can have the general formula M_n+1X_n where M represents a transition metal (such as titanium, vanadium, chromium, niobium), X is carbon and/or nitrogen, and n ranges between 1 and 3. MXene is produced by etching the element A layer from MAX phases with a composition of M_n+1AX_n, where A represents a group A element (aluminum, silicon, tin, indium, etc.). MAX phases are a large family of hexagonal-layered ternary transition metal carbides and/or nitrides. The etching process is carried out by immersing the MAX phase in hydrofluoric acid at room temperature. Using a vacuum-assisted filtration process, the two-dimensional metal carbides may be layered to produce membranes having thicknesses on the order of hundreds of nanometers to several micrometers.

The present inventors have examined the permeation of metal cations (Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Ni²⁺ and Al³⁺) with counter Cl⁻ anions and of acid blue dye molecules through Ti₃C₂T_x membranes. In order to increase mechanical stabilities of the Ti₃C₂T_x membranes in an aqueous environment, Ti₃C₂T_x/polymer membranes were also prepared. When compared to the Ti₃C₂T_x membranes, Ti₃C₂T_x/polymer membranes showed equal or even better selectivity. As will be discussed in detail below, both the Ti₃C₂T_x membranes and the Ti₃C₂T_x/polymer membranes performed better than graphene oxide (GO) membranes, which were prepared and tested under the same conditions. As will be further discussed in detail below, based on the interlayer spacing parameter from several density functional theory (DFT) calculation reports, and charge intercalation theory, a mechanism of ion transport through the Ti₃C₂T_x membranes was determined.

The thickness of the Ti₃C₂T_x membranes being tested was controlled between 1.3 and 1.8 μm, with most of the test membranes having a thickness of about 1.5 μm. FIG. 1A is a scanning electron micrograph of a cross-section of a Ti₃C₂T_x membrane, formed from stacked Ti₃C₂T_x layers having an overall thickness of approximately 1.47 μm and a mass of approximately 5 mg. FIG. 1B is a scanning electron micrograph of a cross-section of a Ti₃C₂T_x/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) composite membrane, having an overall thickness of approximately 1.66 m and a mass of approximately 5.6 mg. Both membranes showed high solvent permeability. No permeation of acid blue dye molecules through the membranes was detected by conductivity probe after a 24 hour test, showing that no pinholes existed in the membranes.

In order to obtain smooth and orderly stacked Ti₃C₂T_x laminates, dilute colloidal Ti₃C₂T_x suspensions for filtration were provided. In particular, dilute concentrations as low as 0.01 mg/ml were used, resulting in a long filtration time of approximately four hours. The smoothness and ordered stacking of nano-sheet layers is important since it ensures formation of uniform two-dimensional nano-channels which are selective to water molecules and ions, and also exhibit robust integrity in water. Additionally, the membranes may be mounted on a supporting substrate, such as a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) supporting substrate. Due to the relatively high pressure exerted on Ti₃C₂T_x membranes in use as desalination and filtration membranes, commercial polyvinylidene fluoride membranes with a pore size of 450 nm were used as supporting substrates. Pure PVDF membranes typically show no hindering effect on molecules, even molecules as big as acid blue, which are larger than any ions or molecules used in the experiment. Thus, the PVDF supporting membrane does not affect the Ti₃C₂T_x membrane's selectivity to ions and molecules. Table 1 below shows permeation of a pure PVDF membrane compared with permeation of a Ti₃C₂T_x/PVDF membrane as a function of time.

TABLE 1
Comparison of Permeation of PVDF Membrane
and Ti3C2Tx/PVDF Membrane
	Permeation Conductivity (μS/cm)
	PVDF	Ti3C2Tx/PVDF
Time (hours)	Acid Blue (137.6 μS/cm)	Acid Blue (137.6 μS/cm)
1	18.5	1.9
2	33.8	3.8
3	56.1	5.3
4	70.2	7.1
24	—	29

The Ti₃C₂T_x membrane with the PVDF substrate was assembled into a U-shaped testing device 10, as shown in FIG. 2A, for studying the ionic conductivity of permeate solution. The Ti₃C₂T_x/PVDF membrane 12 was placed centrally within the U-shaped housing 14, dividing the U-shaped housing 14 into a feed compartment 16 and a permeate compartment 18. Ionic conductivity of the permeate solution P was measured and converted to salt concentrations based on molar conductivity. The cation concentrations were obtained assuming that cations and anions move through membranes in stoichiometric amounts, and were plotted as a function of time, reflecting the permeability of the cations under investigation. For all salt solutions studied, the cation concentrations' permeation increased linearly with time, with increasing rates following the progression of Na⁺→Li⁺→K⁺→Ca²⁺→Ni²⁺→Mg²⁺→Al³⁺. FIG. 2B shows permeated ion concentration across membrane 12 as a function of time for each of the salt solutions under investigation, with 0.2 M feed solutions, all with counter Cl⁻ anions. In the experiment, a 50 mL sample of each aqueous solution (0.2 mol/L in deionized water) was injected with the same speed into the feed compartment 16. Magnetic stirring was used in the permeation compartment 18 to ensure no concentration gradients. The conductivity in the permeation compartment 18 was recorded with increasing permeation time.

In order to examine cation selectivity of the two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membranes, the cations' permeation rates were compared against their sizes and charges, as shown in FIG. 3 and in Table 2 below. FIG. 3 shows the selective permeation rate through a 1.5 m thick Ti₃C₂T_x membrane with counter Cl⁻ anions, shown as a function of cation hydrated radius.

TABLE 2
Permeation Rates for Differing Cations
Solutions	K+	Na+	Li+	Ni2+	Ca2+	Mg2+	Al3+
Permeation Rates	0.94	1.53	1.40	0.22	0.23	0.16	0.06
(mol/h/m2)

The effective volume occupied by a cation in water is characterized by its hydrated radius. The smaller species permeate with similar speeds, whereas larger ions exhibit much smaller permeation speeds. The permeation curves can be classified with similar permeation rates. Three separate groups, including Na⁺, Li⁺ and K⁺; Ca²⁺, Ni²⁺ and Mg²⁺; and Al³⁺. Na⁺ ions, have the largest permeation rate of 1.53 mol/h/m², which is about 25 times faster than that of Al³⁺ ions. It was noted that, with regard to the selectivity, there is a cut-off trend of permeation around 4.0 Å, indicating cations larger than this size were sieved out. Thus, Ti₃C₂T_x membranes are shown as being selective towards ions of different size and/or charge, such as Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Ni²⁺ and Al³⁺.

FIG. 4A shows the results of a selective permeation comparison between an MXene-based membrane (Ti₃C₂T_x) and a conventional graphene oxide (GO) membrane as a function of cation hydrated radius. FIG. 4B shows the results of a selective permeation comparison between the MXene-based membrane, an MXene/PVA-based membrane (Ti₃C₂T_x/PVA) and the conventional graphene oxide (GO) membrane as a function of cation hydrated radius. With respect to the conventional GO membrane, the two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane is highly hydrophilic with a contact angle of 35° against water and has sufficient mechanical strength for handling.

The tensile strength of a MXene film having a thickness on the order of 3.3 m is about 22 MPa, with a Young's modulus of 3.5 GPa, both of which can be further improved with polymer additives. A comparison between a 2.5 μm thick GO membrane and a 3.3 μm MXene-based membrane is summarized below in Table 3.

TABLE 3
Comparison of Mechanical Properties
Properties	GO	MXene
Contact Angle (°)	33.7	35
Conductivity (S/m)	Insulator (~6.8 × 10−8)	240,238 ± 3,500
Young's Modulus (GPa)	30	3.5
Tensile Strength (MPa)	55	22

FIG. 5 shows X-ray diffraction patterns of Ti₃C₂T_x membranes in both a wet state and a dry state, both before and after permeation of MgCl₂. The transport mechanisms through Ti₃C₂T_x membrane films can be size and charge selective due to the presence of interlayer slit pores and negative charges on hydrophilic Ti₃C₂T_x-based film surfaces. Ti₃C₂T_x flakes are negatively charged, which leads to absorption of cations and repulsion of anions. This results in Ti₃C₂T_x's selectivity to ions with different charges, in addition to sizes. Further, the Ti₃C₂T_x nano-layer sheets have been separated into two types of regions: functionalized and origin, similar to the regions of conventional GO nano-sheets. The functional groups (OH, O, F) on the Ti₃C₂T_x surface may act as spacers to support nano-sheet interlayer spacing, as well as acting as hurdles to impede the transportation of ions. The origin regions form the network of capillaries that allow or hinder the flow of water or ions. First principle calculations models predict that the interlayer spacing separated from Ti₃C₂T_x layers is about 10-11.5 Å. The XRD patterns of Ti₃C₂T_x show a c-Lp of 25.4 Å at the dry state in air and 33.4 Å at the wet state, which includes two sets of a rigid Ti₃C₂ layers plus an interlayer spacing. From molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, one rigid layer of Ti₃C₂ has a thickness of 4.72 Å. Thus, from calculations and a combination of XRD and simulations, the interlayer spacings for dry and wet Ti₃C₂T_x membranes are about 7.98 and 11.98 Å, respectively.

In order to make the Ti₃C₂T_x membrane, a Ti₃C₂T_x colloidal solution is first prepared. So as to obtain few- and/or single-layer flakes, Ml-Ti₃C₂T_x powders are first delaminated by ultrasonication. In experiment, the Ml-Ti₃C₂T_x powders were obtained from etching Ti₃AlC₂ powder with LiF/HCl solution. Then, the produced Ml-Ti₃C₂T_x powder is dispersed in deaerated water with a weight ratio of Ml-Ti₃C₂T_x:water of 250:1. The suspension is sonicated under flowing Ar for 1 hour, and then centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 1 hour to obtain the supernatant containing Ti₃C₂T_x flakes, thus producing the Ti₃C₂T_x colloidal solution.

In order to prepare the Ti₃C₂T_x/PVA composite, the Ti₃C₂T_x colloidal solution was mixed with a PVA having a molecular weight of 115,000 in aqueous solution. Specifically, aqueous solutions of Ti₃C₂T_x (˜0.3 mg mL⁻¹) and PVA (0.1 wt %) were mixed and the mixture was sonicated in a water bath for 15 min. The Ti₃C₂T_x to PVA weight ratios chosen were 90:10. In all cases, the mass of the starting Ti₃C₂T_x was 5±0.1 mg.

In order to prepare the Ti₃C₂T_x-based membrane supported on PVDF, the Ti₃C₂T_x and its polymer composite solutions were diluted to 0.01 mg mL^U(i.e., the concentration of Ti₃C₂T_x in solution). The films were fabricated via vacuum-assisted filtration (VAF) of the diluted solutions through a PVDF substrate, which was hydrophilic and had a pore size of approximately 0.45 μm, with a diameter of 47 mm. A glass microfiltration apparatus, with a fritted alumina supported base, was used for the vacuum filtration. The filtered films were air dried on the PVDF filter substrate.

In the above, the measured ionic conductivity variation of each permeate solution was converted to ion concentrations based on molar conductivity calculations. Molar conductivity is defined as the conductivity of an electrolyte solution divided by the molar concentration of the electrolyte, which is given by: Λ_m=κ/c, where K is the measured conductivity, and c is the electrolyte concentration. Thus, the electrolyte concentration can be obtained as c=K/Λ_m, in which the ionic conductivity of all of the salt solutions can be found in standard references. Then, the ion permeation rate (J) was calculated by the classical diffusion equation:

$J=\frac{V_{\mathrm{eff}}·\Delta C}{A_{\mathrm{eff}}·t},$

where V_eff is the effective volume of the solution on permeate side; AC is the concentration gradient across the membrane; A_eff is the effective area of the MXene-based membrane, and t is the diffusion time.

With regard to the characterizations described above, a scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to study the morphology of the produced flakes and films. Elemental analysis was conducted using an energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrometer. A transmission electron microscope (TEM) operating at 200 kV was used to obtain images of the Ti₃C₂T_x flakes and the Ti₃C₂T_x/PVA films. The Ti₃C₂T_x flakes for TEM were prepared by dropping the colloidal solution on a lacey carbon-coated copper grid. The Ti₃C₂T_x/PVA cross-sections were produced by first embedding the films in epoxy resin and then cutting them using a glass microtome. The produced chips were placed on a lacey carbon-coated copper grid.

It is to be understood that the present invention is not limited to the embodiments described above, but encompasses any and all embodiments within the scope of the following claims.

Claims

1. A two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane, comprising a plurality of stacked, two-dimensional metal carbide layers, each of the two-dimensional metal carbide layers including a two-dimensional metal carbide having the formula Tin+1CnTx, wherein T represents a terminal functional group, n is between 1 and 3, and x represents the number of the terminal functional groups.

2. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane as recited in claim 1, wherein the terminal functional group comprises at least one functional group selected from the group consisting of oxygen, hydroxide (OH), and fluorine.

3. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane as recited in claim 2, wherein the carbide comprises Ti3C2Tx.

4. A two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane, comprising a plurality of stacked, two-dimensional, carbide-polymer composite layers, wherein the carbide has the structure Mn+1CnTx, wherein M represents a transition metal, n is between 1 and 3, T represents a terminal functional group, and x represents the number of the terminal functional groups.

5. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane as recited in claim 4, wherein the transition metal comprises a transition metal selected from the group consisting of: titanium, vanadium, chromium, and niobium.

6. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane as recited in claim 4, wherein the terminal functional group comprises at least one function group selected from the group consisting of oxygen, hydroxide (OH), and fluorine.

7. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane as recited in claim 4, wherein the carbide comprises Ti3C2Tx.

8. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane as recited in claim 4, wherein the polymer comprises polyvinyl alcohol.

9. A method of making a two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane, comprising the steps of: diluting Ti3C2Tx in water to form a solution, wherein T represents a terminal functional group, and x represents a number of the terminal functional groups; andforming a film layer of the Ti3C2Tx by vacuum-assisted filtration of the solution through a filtering membrane, wherein the vacuum-assisted filtration is performed multiple times to produce a two-dimensional metal carbide membrane comprising a stack of the film layers of the Ti3C2Tx.

10. The method of making a two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane as recited in claim 9, wherein the step of diluting the Ti3C2Tx in the water comprises diluting the Ti3C2Tx to a concentration of about 0.01 mg mL−1.

11. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane according to claim 1, further comprising a polymer substrate, the stacked, two-dimensional metal carbide layers being layered on the polymer substrate.

12. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane according to claim 11, wherein the polymer substrate comprises polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).

13. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane according to claim 1, further comprising polyvinyl alcohol, wherein each of the two-dimensional metal carbide layers comprises a composite of the two-dimensional metal carbide with polyvinyl alcohol.

14. A method for desalination of salt water, comprising the step of contacting salt water with the membrane according to claim 1 in order to desalinate the salt water and recover fresh water.

15. A method for filtration of water, comprising the step of contacting water with the membrane according to claim 1 in order to filter the wastewater and remove impurities.

16. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane according to claim 4, further comprising a polymer substrate, the stacked, two-dimensional metal carbide layers being layered on the polymer substrate.

17. The two-dimensional metal carbide desalination membrane according to claim 16, wherein the polymer substrate comprises polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).

18. A method for desalination of salt water, comprising the step of contacting salt water with the membrane according to claim 4 in order to desalinate the salt water and recover fresh water.

19. A method for filtration of water, comprising the step of contacting water with the membrane according to claim 4 in order to filter the water and remove impurities.