Patent Application
20070191366
The invention relates to glutaminyl cyclase (QC, EC 2.3.2.5) that catalyzes the intramolecular cyclization of N-terminal glutamine residues into pyroglutamic acid (5-oxo-proline, pGlu*) under liberation of ammonia and the intramolecular cyclization of N-terminal glutamate residues into pyroglutamic acid under liberation of water.
The present invention identifies mammalian QCs as metalloenzymes, provides novel physiological substrates of QC in mammals and the use of effectors of QC and pharmaceutical compositions comprising effectors of QC for the treatment of conditions that can be medicated by modulation of QC-activity. Additionally, it is shown that metal interaction is a useful approach for development of QC inhibitors.
In a further embodiment, the present invention provides the use of effectors of QC activity in combination with other agents, which are useful for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.
A screening method is also provided for the identification and selection of effectors of QC activity.
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most frequent neurodegenerative disorder in developed countries, accounting for 60-70% of all dementia cases. Around 5% of all people over the age of 65 years are suffering from AD. Due to a close correlation to age the number of patients is dramatically increasing worldwide. Around 5% of all people above the age of 65 years are suffering from AD while about 30-50% over the age of 80 are affected. In the US alone an estimated 4.5 million patients (in Germany 1.5 million) have Alzheimer's disease. This number is expected to grow to up to 16 million people in 2050. The spending in 2005 was 91 billion US-$ for medication and nursing in the USA. With respect to the increasing life expectancy, the development of a treatment strategy is the present therapeutic challenge and due to a close correlation to age, the number of patients is dramatically increasing worldwide. Even after two decades of intense research, there is currently no treatment available, which rebuilds or even sustains the cognitive function of the patients in a long-lasting manner.
Present endeavors for potential new causal treatments include application of
With regard to vaccination, recent results point to dramatic adverse effects: phase II trials failed because of a high percentage of aseptic encephalitis cases (Patton, et al. (2006) Am J Pathol. 169, 1048-63). Also, the apparently straightforward approach to develop β-secretase (BACE-1) and γ-secretase inhibitors is hampered by their importance for basic cellular processes, e.g. is BACE-1 activity essential for myelination of axons (Glabe, C. (2006) Science 314, 602-603). Also, APP and even Aβ seem to fulfill important physiological functions (Pearson and Peers (2006) J Physiol. 575, 5-10), which might obstruct therapeutic strategies to suppress Aβ generation in general.
A characteristic symptom of AD is the progressive cognitive impairment, characterized by loss of memory, function, language abilities, judgment and executive functioning. Later disease stages are often associated with severe behavioral symptoms (aggression, delusions, hallucinations, disturbed day-night cycle) and the loss of activities of daily living. Reasons for the observed cognitive decline are molecular and histopathological changes in the brain. The earliest events are loss of synaptic contacts in the entorhinal cortex. At later stages, there is also a significant loss of cholinergic neurons in basal forebrain nuclei, a finding that led to the cholinergic theory behind memory loss in this disease and which was the basis for the development of a first symptomatic treatment. Pathological hallmarks of the disease are extracellular amyloid deposits consisting mainly of the amyloid beta peptide (neuritic plaques), and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles which are formed by the hyperphosphorylated microtubule-associated protein tau. The cerebral cortex and the hippocampal regions are particularly affected. According to the amyloid hypothesis, initial amyloid aggregates are caused by intracellular Aβ accumulation, which then initiates the pathophysiologic cascade including plaque formation, neuroinflammation and tangle-formation (Selkoe (2001) Physiol. Rev. 81, 741-766).
The core of amyloid plaques in AD consists of multimeric aggregates of a polypeptide of 40 or 42 residues (4 kDa), depending on the cleavage site of γ-secretase, called amyloid beta or Aβ. The peptide is generated from the amyloid precursor protein (APP), a class 1 transmembrane protein which is highly expressed in neuronal cells, by successive proteolysis of a β- and γ-secretase (
Depending on the chain length, Aβ peptides display different neurotoxicity, i.e. the longer form Aβ(1-42) is particularly important for developing Alzheimer's disease. It has been shown in vitro that Aβ(1-42)-peptides aggregate more rapidly than Aβ(1-40) peptides. Furthermore, analysis of brains derived from patients with sporadic Alzheimer's disease and Down's syndrome, who inevitably develop AD as a result of the presence of a third APP gene, has shown that Aβ(1-42) peptides deposit at the beginning and in a highly selective manner in senile plaques. These findings provided strong evidence that aggregation and deposition of Aβ(1-42) peptides may be a common initiating event in all forms of AD.
So, in the last decades, research was focused on the C-terminal part of the Aβ-peptides and the influence of C-terminal modifications on AD development and progression. More recently, research was started on N-terminal modifications of Aβ(1-40) and Aβ(1-42). Several new studies have shown that the Aβ-peptides deposited in brains of AD patients are heterogeneous at the N-terminus. The N-terminus of Aβ is generated by β-secretase cleavage at position Asp1 (β-cleavage) and to a much lesser extent at Glu11 (β′-cleavage) of Aβ. However, it has been shown, that the peptides in plaques display pronounced heterogeneity in terms of the N-terminal amino acid. The L-aspartate residues, normally present at positions 1 and 7 in β-amyloid peptides, can be isomerized to iso-aspartate or racemized to form D-aspartate. More importantly, the glutamates are cyclized to pyroglutamic acid (pGlu) in truncated peptides starting at position 3 or 11. Analysis of brains from AD or DS patients show that the core of amyloid plaques consists of β-amyloid peptides containing N-terminal pyroglutamate, e.g. pGlu3-Aβ(3-40/42) and pGlu11-Aβ(11-40/42). These shortened and modified peptides can account for about 50% of the whole Aβ deposited in plaques (Harigaya, et al. (2000) BBRC 276, 422-427; Sergeant, et al. (2003) J. Neurochem. 85, 1581-1591; Russo, et al. (1997) FEBS Lett. 409, 411-416; Kuo, et al. (1997), BBRC 237, 188-191). Moreover, they are reported to be more neurotoxic and to aggregate more rapidly than full-length isoforms in vitro (Schilling, et al. (2006), Biochemistry 45, 12393-12399; Russo, et al. (2002), J. Neurochem. 82, 1480-1489; He and Barrow (1999), Biochemistry 38, 10871-10877). In a recent study, normal-aged (NA) elderly persons with plaque deposits, but without showing Alzheimer's pathology, could be distinguished from patients suffering from sporadic Alzheimer's disease by characterization of the composition of Aβ species (Piccini, et al. (2005), J. Biol. Chem., 34186-34192). In water-soluble brain fractions of patients with AD, a significantly higher amount of N-terminally truncated, pGlu-modified Aβ peptides was detected, suggesting that accumulation of these species represents a nidus for development of neurodegeneration. A correlation of the insoluble pGlu-Aβ concentration with the state of disease progression was also reported very recently (Güntert, et al. (2006) Neuroscience, 143, 461-475). Additionally, elevated levels of N-truncated Aβ peptides were identified in familial AD cases caused by presenilin mutations. In fact, this further substantiates the relevance of N-modified Aβ for the severity of the disease (Miravalle, et al. (2005), Biochemistry 44, 10810-10821; Russo, et al. (2000), Nature 405, 531-532). Finally, it is important to consider that pGlu-modified Aβ peptides are resistant to degradation by extracellular aminopeptidases. Therefore, pyroglutamate-modified Aβ species have, a prolonged half-life in vivo, which favors accumulation and formation of neurotoxic aggregates (Saido (1998) Neurobiol. Aging, 19, S69-S75). Taken together, the results indicate that the pGlu3-Aβ peptides play an important, probably even the decisive, role in the development of Alzheimer's disease.
Glutaminyl Cyclases—Catalysts of Pyroglutamyl Formation in Vivo
Several bioactive hormones, e.g. Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) or Gastrin, possess a N-terminal pyroglutamic acid residue, which is generated from glutamine during prohormone maturation. Glutaminyl cyclases (QCs) have been identified to catalyze the cyclization of N-terminal glutaminyl residues in plants and animals under concomitant release of ammonia (Messer, (1963), Nature 4874, 1299; Fischer and Spiess, (1987), PNAS 84, 3628-3632).
A QC was first isolated by Messer from the latex of the tropical plant Carica papaya in 1963 (Messer, M. (1963) Nature 4874, 1299). 24 years later, a corresponding enzymatic activity was discovered in animal pituitary (Busby, W. H. J. et al. (1987) J Biol Chem 262, 8532-8536; Fischer, W. H. and Spiess, J. (1987) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84, 3628-3632). For the mammalian QCs, the conversion of Gln into pGlu by QC could be shown for the precursors of TRH and GnRH (Busby, W. H. J. et al. (1987) J Biol Chem 262, 8532-8536; Fischer, W. H. and Spiess, J. (1987) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84, 3628-3632). In addition, initial localization experiments of QC revealed a co-localization with its putative products of catalysis in bovine pituitary, further improving the suggested function in peptide hormone synthesis (Bockers, T. M. et al. (1995) J Neuroendocrinol 7, 445-453). In contrast, the physiological function of the plant QC is less clear. In case of the enzyme from C. papaya, a role in the plant defense against pathogenic microorganisms was suggested (El Moussaoui, A. et al. (2001) Cell Mol Life Sci 58, 556-570). Recently, other QCs from plants were identified by sequence comparisons (Dahl, S. W. et al. (2000) Protein Expr Purif 20, 27-36; Schilling, S. et al. (2007) Biol Chem 388, 145-153) The physiological function of these enzymes, is presumably the pGlu-formation at the N-terminus of pathogenesis-related proteins. The QCs known from plants and animals show a strict specificity for L-Glutamine at the N-terminal position of the substrates and their kinetic behavior was found to obey the Michaelis-Menten equation mostly (Pohl, T. et al. (1991) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88, 10059-10063; Consalvo, A. P. et al. (1988) Anal Biochem 175, 131-138; Gololobov, M. Y. et al. (1996) Biol Chem Hoppe Seyler 377, 395-398, Schilling, S. et al. (2003) Biol Chem 384, 1583-1592). A comparison of the primary structures of the QC from C. papaya and of the highly conserved QCs from mammals, however, did not reveal any sequence homology (Dahl, S. W. et al. (2000) Protein Expr Purif 20, 27-36). Whereas the plant QCs appear to belong to a new enzyme family (Dahl, S. W. et al. (2000) Protein Expr Purif 20, 27-36), the mammalian QCs were found to have a pronounced sequence homology to bacterial aminopeptidases (Bateman, R. C. et al. (2001) Biochemistry 40, 11246-11250), leading to the conclusion that the QCs from plants and animals have different evolutionary origins.
EP 02 011 349.4 discloses polynucleotides encoding insect glutaminyl cyclase, as well as polypeptides encoded thereby. This application further provides host cells comprising expression vectors comprising polynucleotides of the invention. Isolated polypeptides and host cells comprising insect QC are useful in methods of screening for agents that reduce glutaminyl cyclase activity. Such agents are described as useful pesticides.
First tissue distribution studies of mammalian QCs revealed that they are mainly expressed in brain and some peripheral glands, e.g. thyroid and thymus. The enzyme is expected to be directed to the regulated secretory pathway of the expressing cells where the hormone maturation process takes place (Bockers, et al. (1995), J. Neuroendocrinol. 7, 445-453). Upon stimulation, QCs appear to be secreted from the cells together with the mature hormones.
Mammalian QCs were isolated and characterized from human, bovine and murine sources (Pohl, et al. (1991), PNAS 88, 10059-19963; Schilling, et al. (2002), Biochemistry 41, 10849-10857; Schilling, et al. (2005), Biochemistry 44, 13415-13424). The open reading frames of the enzymes consist of 361 (human, bovine) or 362 (murine) amino acids with an overall sequence identity of about 80%. The mature proteins are glycosylated. Human QC has been shown to be highly specific for the L-configuration of glutamine at the N-terminal amino acid position. Free glutamine was not converted (Schilling, et al. (2003) Biol Chem 384, 1583-1592). Other restrictions, however, were not observed, implying that the enzyme is responsible for N-terminal conversion of the very heterogenous group of pGlu-hormones and proteins (Schilling, et al. (2003), Biol. Chem. 384, 1583-1592). Initial mechanistic studies on human QC pointed to an involvement of histidinyl residues in the binding and conversion of the substrate as indicated by diethyl pyrocarbonate inhibition and site directed mutagenesis (Bateman, et al. (2001), Biochemistry 40, 11246-11250). Later evidence showed that mammalian QCs are structurally related to zinc-dependent aminopeptidases and that the residues for complexation of the active site metal ions are also conserved in human QC. Furthermore, 1,10-phenanthroline, dipicolinic acid and imidazole inhibited human QC, implying a metal-dependent catalysis of the enzyme (Schilling, et al. (2003), J. Biol. Chem. 278, 49773-49779). Determination of metal content of human and murine QC and crystallization revealed a single zinc-dependent catalytic in human and murine QC mechanism (Huang, et al. (2005), PNAS 102, 13117-13122; Schilling, et al. (2005), Biochemistry 44, 13415-13424).
In contrast to the physiological QC-substrates, glutamic acid is the precursor of pGlu at the N-terminus of Aβ. Initially, it was suggested that cyclization of glutamic acid proceeds spontaneously (Hashimoto, et al. (2002), EMBO J. 21, 1524-1534). The identification of QCs in brain regions vulnerable to AD, however, triggered research by the present inventors on the catalytic properties of QC. Indeed, catalysis of pGlu-Aβ(3-11) and pGlu-Aβ(3-21) generation could be demonstrated in vitro (Schilling, et al. (2004), FEBS Lett. 563, 191-196). Interestingly, the pH-dependence of catalysis reveals an optimal substrate conversion under mildly acidic conditions, which contrasts with the basic pH-optimum for cyclization of glutaminyl peptides. This, in fact, supports a conversion of glutamic acid at the N-terminus of Aβ in the secretory pathway, were an acidic pH environment has been described. Pyroglutamate present at the N-terminus of the C-terminal fragments supports such a conclusion (Russo, et al. (2001), Neurobiol. Dis. 8, 173-180). Additionally, an involvement of QC in conversion of glutamic acid into pGlu is supported by the following observations:
Chemotactic cytokines (chemokines) are proteins that attract and activate leukocytes and are thought to play a fundamental role in inflammation. Chemokines are divided into four groups categorized by the appearance of N-terminal cysteine residues (“C”-; “CC”-; “CXC”- and “CX3C”-chemokines). “CXC”-chemokines preferentially act on neutrophils. In contrast, “CC”-chemokines attract preferentially monocytes to sites of inflammation. Monocyte infiltration is considered to be a key event in a number of disease conditions (Gerard and Rollins (2001) Nat. Immunol 2, 108-115; Bhatia, et al. (2005) Pancreatology. 5, 132-144; Kitamoto, et al. (2003) J Pharmacol Sci. 91, 192-196). The MCP family, as one family of chemokines, consists of four members (MCP-1-4), displaying a preference for attracting monocytes but showing differences in their potential (Luini, et al. (1994) Cytokine 6, 28-31; Uguccioni, et al. (1995) Eur J Immunol 25, 64-68). In the following both cDNA as well as amino acid sequences of MCP-1-4 are indicated:
The inventors have shown that the mature form of human and rodent MCP-1 is posttranslationally modified by Glutaminyl Cyclase (QC), resulting in the formation of an N-terminal pyroglutamyl (pGlu) residue. The N-terminal pGlu modification confers resistance against N-terminal degradation by aminopeptidases, which is of importance, since chemotactic potency of MCP-1 is mediated by its N-terminus (Van Damme, J., et al., (1999) Chem Immunol 72, 42-56). Artificial elongation or degradation leads to a loss of function although MCP-1 still binds to its receptor (CCR2) (Proost, P., et al., (1998), J Immunol 160, 4034-4041; Zhang, Y. J., et al., (1994), J Biol. Chem. 269, 15918-15924; Masure, S., et al., 1995, J Interferon Cytokine Res. 15, 955-963; Hemmerich, S., et al., (1999) Biochemistry 38, 13013-13025).
Due to the major role of MCP-1 in a number of disease conditions, an anti-MCP-1 strategy is urgently needed. Therefore, small orally available compounds inhibiting the action of MCP-1 are promising candidates for a drug development. Inhibitors of Glutaminyl Cyclase are small orally available compounds, which target the important step of pGlu-formation at the N-terminus of MCP-1 (Cynis, H., et al., (2006) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1764, 1618-1625; Buchholz, M., et al., (2006) J Med Chem 49, 664-677). In consequence, after application of a QC-inhibitor the N-terminus of MCP-1 is not protected by a pGlu-residue possessing a glutamine-proline motif, which can be cleaved by dipeptidylpeptidases, e.g. dipeptidylpeptidase 4 and fibroblast activating protein (FAP, Seprase), abundantly existing on the endothelium and within the blood circulation. This leads to the formation of N-terminal truncated MCP 1 unfolding an antagonistic action at the CCR2 and therefore, inhibiting monocyte-related disease conditions.
As mentioned above, Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1, CCL2) belongs to a family of potent chemotactic cytokines (CC chemokines), that regulate the trafficking of leukocytes, especially monocytes, macrophages and T-cells, to sites of inflammation (Charo, I. F. and Taubman, M. B. (2004) Circ. Res. 95, 858-866). Besides its role in, e.g. vascular disease, compelling evidence points to a role of MCP 1 in Alzheimer's disease (AD) (Xia, M. Q. and Hyman, B. T. (1999) J Neurovirol. 5, 32-41). The presence of MCP-1 in senile plaques and in reactive microglia, the residential macrophages of the CNS, has been observed in brains of patients suffering from AD (Ishizuka, K., et al., (1997) Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 51, 135-138). Stimulation of monocytes and microglia with Amyloid-β protein (Aβ) induces chemokine secretion in vitro (Meda, L., et al., (1996) J Immunol 157, 1213-1218; Szczepanik, A. M., et al., (2001) J Neuroimmunol. 113, 49-62) and intracerebroventricular infusion of Aβ (1-42) into murine hippocampus significantly increases MCP-1 in vivo. Moreover, Aβ deposits attract and activate microglial cells and force them to produce inflammatory mediators such as MCP-1, which in turn leads to a feed back to induce further chemotaxis, activation and tissue damage. At the site of Aβ deposition, activated microglia also phagocyte Aβ peptides leading to activation (Rogers, J. and Lue, L. F. (2001) Neurochem. Int. 39, 333-340).
Examination of chemokine expression in the 3×Tg mouse model for AD revealed that neuronal inflammation precedes plaque formation and MCP-1 is upregulated by a factor of 11. Furthermore, the upregulation of MCP-1 seems to correlate with the occurrence of first intracellular Aβ deposits (Janelsins, M. C., et al., (2005) J Neuroinflammation. 2, 23). Cross-breeding of the Tg2575 mouse model for AD with a MCP-1 overexpressing mouse model has shown an increased microglia accumulation around Aβ deposits and that this accumulation was accompanied by increased amount of diffuse plaques compared to single-transgenic Tg2576 littermates (Yamamoto, M., et al. (2005) Am. J Pathol. 166, 1475-1485).
MCP-1 levels are increased in CSF of AD patients and patients showing mild cognitive impairment (MCI) (Galimberti, D., et al., (2006) Arch. Neurol. 63, 538-543). Furthermore, MCP-1 shows an increased level in serum of patients with MCI and early AD (Clerici, F., et al., (2006) Neurobiol. Aging 27, 1763-1768).
The present invention provides novel physiological substrates of QC in mammals. Novel substrates are the glutamic acid precursers of amyloid peptides, e.g. Aβ(3-40), Aβ(3-42), [Gln3]Aβ(3-40), [Gln3]Aβ(3-42), [Glu11]Aβ(11-40), [Glu11]Aβ(11-42), [Gln11]Aβ(11-40), [Gln11]Aβ(11-42), [Gln1]ABri, [Gln1]ADan, [Gln1]Gastrins (17 and 34), [Gln1]Neurotensin, [Gln1]FPP, [Gln1]TRH, [Gln1]GnRH, [Gln1]CCL 2, [Gln1]CCL 7, [Gln1]CCL 8, [Gln1]CCL 13, [Gln1]CCL 16, [Gln1]CCL 18, [Gln1]ELA, [Gln1]Fractalkine, [Gln1]Orexin A, [Gln3]glucagon(3-29) and [Gln5]substance P(5-11) and the use of effectors of QC and pharmaceutical compositions comprising effectors of QC for the treatment of conditions that can be treated by modulation of QC activity.
It was shown by inhibition studies that human QC is a metal-dependent transferase. QC apoenzyme could be reactivated most efficiently by zinc ions, and the metal-binding motif of zinc-dependent aminopeptidases is also present in human QC. Compounds interacting with the active-site bound metal are potent inhibitors.
Unexpectedly, it was shown by the inventors that recombinant human QC as well as QC-activity from brain extracts catalyze both the N-terminal glutaminyl as well as glutamate cyclization. Most striking is the finding, that cyclase-catalyzed Glu1-conversion is favored around pH 6.0 while Gln1-conversion to pGlu-derivatives occurs with a pH-optimum of around 8.0. Since the formation of pGlu-Aβ-related peptides can be suppressed by inhibition of recombinant human QC and QC-activity from pig pituitary extracts, the enzyme QC is a target in drug development for treatment of Alzheimer's disease.
The present invention relates to effectors of QC activity and use thereof for the treatment and/or prevention of a disease or disorder selected from the group consisting of
In particular, the present invention pertains to the use of effectors of QC activity for the preparation of a medicament for the prevention, alleviation and/or treatment of Alzheimer's disease in a human subject.
Further, by administration of effectors of QC activity to a mammal it can be possible to stimulate gastrointestinal tract cell proliferation, preferably proliferation of gastric mucosal cells, epithelial cells, acute acid secretion and the differentiation of acid producing parietal cells and histamine-secreting enterochromaffin-like cells.
Furthermore, by administration of effectors of QC activity to a mammal it can be possible to suppress the proliferation of myeloid progenitor cells.
In addition, administration of QC inhibitors can lead to suppression of male fertility.
In a preferred embodiment, the present invention provides the use of effectors of QC activity in combination with inhibitors of DP IV or DP IV-like enzymes for the treatment or alleviation of conditions that can be treated by modulation of QC- and/or DP IV-activity.
The present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions for parenteral, enteral or oral administration, comprising at least one effector of QC optionally in combination with customary carriers and/or excipients; or comprising at least one effector of QC in combination with at least one DP IV-inhibitor, optionally in combination with customary carriers and/or excipients.
Screening methods are also provided for the identification and selection of effectors of QC.
Further understanding of these and other aspects of the present invention will be had by reference to the figures wherein:
A) Fibril formation from monomeric Aβ(1-42) (circles), Aβ(3-42) (triangles) and pGlu-Aβ(3-42) (squares) analyzed using flow cytometry. Reactions were carried out in 50 mM sodium acetate, pH 5.5 containing 2 mM DTT and 100 mM NaCl at a peptide concentration of 10 μM. Fibril formation from a mixture of unlabeled (80%) and Alexa Fluor 488 labeled (20%) Aβ peptides.
B) Fibril formation from unlabeled Aβ peptides followed by incubation with a labeled 4G8 antibody and analysis using flow cytometry. C) Comparison of monomeric Aβ(1-42) (80% unlabeled, 20% Alexa-Fluor labeled) (circles), with a sample consisting of 70% monomeric, unlabeled Aβ(1-42), 20% monomeric. Alexa-Fluor labeled Aβ(1-42) and 10% monomeric unlabeled pGlu-Aβ(3-42) (squares). D) Kinetics of aggregation of Aβ(1-40) (circles), Aβ(3-40) (triangles) and pGlu-Aβ(3-40) (squares) monitored by ThT fluorescence. For pGlu-Aβ(3-40), an initial lag phase was not observed under the applied conditions, indicating an influence of the pGlu-residue on the formation of seeds.
The QC-inhibitor 1-(3-(1H-imidazole-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxy-phenyl)thiourea hydrochloride reduced the ratio after co-injection with Aβ: A) 5 μL 1M solution, B) 5 μL 0.2 M solution.
FS Log: forward scatter; SS Log: side scatter; FL1 Log: fluorescence 1 channel. The different size distributions (FS Log/SS Log dot-blots) of fibrils (A) and oligomers (C) correlate with signal intensity in the FL1 channel (B, D; regions R1 and R2) and allow a differentiation of these structures in a single experiment. It should be noted that the assay does not detect any monomeric species, i.e., at time point 0 after reaction start, no signal can be observed, which also becomes evident from the data displayed in
D: Migration of THP-1 monocytes towards the generated supernatant of HEK293 cells, transfected with MCP-1 (WT) or MCP-1 (ΔQ1) in dilutions 1:1, 1:3, 1:10 and 1:30. (*, P<0.05; **, P<0.01; ***, P<0.001; Student's t-test, n=3)
The peptides mentioned and used herein have the following sequences:
The present invention provides effectors of glutaminyl cyclase (QC) for
Furthermore, the present invention provides compounds for the inhibition of glutaminyl cyclase (QC, EC 2.3.2.5) and/or QC-like enzymes in a mammal and the use of inhibitors of QC activity for the treatment of pathological conditions related to QC activity. In particular, inhibitors of QC activity for the prevention, treatment and/or alleviation of Alzheimer's disease are provided.
The present invention also provides a new method for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and Down syndrome. The N-termini of amyloid β-peptides deposited in Alzheimer's disease and Down syndrome brain bear pyroglutamic acid. The pGlu formation is an important event in the development and progression of the disease since the modified amyloid β-peptides show an enhanced tendency to β-amyloid aggregation and toxicity, likely worsening the onset and progression of the disease (Russo, C. et al. 2002 J Neurochem 82, 1480-1489).
In the natural Aβ-peptides (3-40/42), glutamic acid is present as an N-terminal amino acid. There was no enzymatic conversion of Glu to pGlu known to date. Moreover, spontaneous cyclization of Glu-peptides to pGlu-peptides has not been observed as yet. Therefore, one aspect of the present invention was to determine the role of QC in Alzheimer's disease and Down syndrome. This aspect was addressed by the synthesis of Aβ(3-11) and Aβ(1-11), containing the amino acid glutamine instead of glutamic acid at position three, the determination of the substrate characteristics of these modified amyloid β-peptides against QC, DP IV and DP IV-like enzymes and aminopeptidases and the use of inhibitors of QC to prevent the formation of pGlu from a N-terminal glutaminyl residue of the amyloid β-derived peptides Aβ(3-11) and Aβ(1-11). The results are shown in example 8. The applied method is described in example 3.
To date, there are no hints indicating an involvement of QC in the progression of the disease, because glutamic acid is the N-terminal amino acid in Aβ (3-40/42, or 11-40/42). However, QC is the only known enzyme capable of forming pGlu at the N-terminus of peptides. Other aspects of the present invention concern the following findings and discoveries:
In this regard the present inventors conducted several extensive studies in order to 1) validate the involvement of QC in generation of pGlu-Aβ(3-40/42) and II) to demonstrate that QC inhibitors can be used to suppress pGlu-Aβ formation in the studies. The most relevant results are illustrated in
Hence, in one particularly important embodiment of the present invention, use of the QC inhibitors, in particular 1-(3-(1H-imidazole-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxy-phenyl)thiourea hydrochloride for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease is claimed. The QC inhibitors would work especially well for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, or prevention or alleviation thereof, as both the Aβ peptides as well as MCP-1, which play an important role in inflammatory processes in Alzheimer's disease, are targets of the QC inhibitors of the invention.
It is only due to the present invention that it could be shown that QC inhibitors would target both MCP-1 and Aβ, both being involved in mechanisms underlying Alzheimer's disease.
It could therefore be shown by the present invention that QC inhibitors are particularly useful for the alleviation or prevention of Alzheimer's disease.
Thus, the present invention clearly discloses the applicability of QC inhibitors in vivo for the treatment of QC-related diseases, in particular Alzheimer's disease.
In parallel to the above studies, substance development was initiated to search for inhibitory leads that display a disease-relevant tissue distribution. The studies as conducted are described in detail in the Examples section of the present invention.
Further, as shown by the present inventors, QC is involved in the critical step in all five cases a) to e) listed above, namely the formation of pyroglutamic acid that favors the aggregation of amyloid β-peptides. Thus, an inhibition of QC leads to a prevention of the precipitation of the plaque-forming Aβ(3-40), Aβ(3-42), Aβ(11-40) or Aβ(11-42), causing the onset and progression of Alzheimer's disease and Down Syndrome, independently of the mechanism by which cyclization occurs.
Glutamate is found in positions 3, 11 and 22 of the amyloid β-peptide. Among them the mutation from glutamic acid (E) to glutamine (Q) in position 22 (corresponding to amyloid precursor protein APP 693, Swissprot P05067) has been described as the so-called Dutch type cerebroarterial amyloidosis mutation.
The β-amyloid peptides with a pyroglutamic acid residue in position 3, 11 and/or 22 have been described to be more cytotoxic and hydrophobic than Aβ(1-40), Aβ(1-42) or Aβ(1-43) (Saido, (2000) Medical Hypotheses 54, 427-429).
The multiple N-terminal variations can be generated by the β-secretase enzyme β-site amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme (BACE) at different sites (Huse J. T. et al. 2002 J. Biol. Chem. 277 (18): 16278-16284), and/or by aminopeptidase processing. In all cases, cyclization can take place according to a)-e) as described above.
So far, there was no experimental evidence supporting the enzymatic conversion of Glu1-peptides into pGlu-peptides by an unknown glutamyl cyclase (EC) corresponding to pathway a) (Garden, R. W. et al., (1999) J Neurochem 72, 676-681; Hosoda R. et al. (1998) J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 57, 1089-1095). To date, no such enzyme activity has been identified, capable to cyclize Glu1-peptides which are protonated N-terminally and possess a negatively charged Glu1 γ-carboxylate moiety under mildly alkaline and neutral pH-conditions.
QC-activity against Gln1-substrates is dramatically reduced below pH 7.0. In contrast, it appears that Glu1-conversion can occur at acidic reaction conditions (Iwatsubo, T. et al., (1996) Am J Pathol 149, 1823-1830; Russo, C. et al., (1977) FEBS Lett 409, 411-416; Russo, C. et al., (2001) Neurobiol Dis 8, 173-180; Tekirian, T. L. et al., (1998) J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 57, 76-94; Russo, C. et al., (2002) J Neurochem 82, 1480-1489; Hosoda, R. et al., (1998) J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 57, 1089-1095; Garden, R. W. et al., (1999) J Neurochem 72, 676-681).
According to the present invention, it was investigated whether QC is able to recognize and to turnover amyloid-β derived peptides under mildly acidic conditions. Therefore, the peptides [Gln3]Aβ(1-11)a, Aβ(3-11)a, [Gln3]Aβ(3-11)a, Aβ(3-21)a, [Gln3]Aβ(3-21)a, [Gln3]Aβ3-40, Aβ(3-40) and Aβ(3-42) as potential substrates of the enzyme were synthesized and investigated. These sequences were chosen for mimicking natural N-terminally and C-terminally truncated [Glu3]Aβ peptides and [Gln3]Aβ peptides which could occur due to posttranslational Glu-amidation.
In the present invention it was shown that papaya and human QC catalyze both glutaminyl and glutamyl cyclization. Apparently, the primary physiological function of QC is to finish hormone maturation in endocrine cells by glutamine cyclization prior or during the hormone secretion process. Such secretory vesicles are known to be acidic in pH. Thus, a side activity of the enzyme in the narrow pH-range from 5.0 to 7.0 could be its newly discovered glutamyl cyclase activity transforming also Glu-Aβ peptides (
Investigating the pH-dependency of this enzymatic reaction, the inventors found that the unprotonated N-terminus was essential for the cyclization of Gln1-peptides and accordingly that the pKa-value of the substrate was identical to the pKa-value for QC-catalysis (see
In contrast to the monovalent charge present on N-terminal glutamine containing peptides, the N-terminal Glu-residue in Glu-containing peptides is predominantly bivalently charged around neutral pH. Glutamate exhibits pKa-values of about 4.2 and 7.5 for the γ-carboxylic and for the α-amino moiety, respectively. That is, at neutral pH and above, although the α-amino nitrogen is in part or fully unprotonated and nucleophilic, the γ-carboxylic group is unprotonated, and so exercising no electrophilic carbonyl activity. Hence, intramolecular cyclization is impossible.
However, in the pH-range of about 5.2-6.5, between their respective pKa-values, the two functional groups are present both in non-ionized forms, in concentrations of about 1-10% (—NH2) or 10-1% (—COOH) of total N-terminal Glu-containing peptide. As a result, over a mildly acidic pH-range species of N-terminal Glu-peptides are present which carry both groups uncharged, and, therefore, it is possible that QC could stabilize the intermediate of intramolecular cyclization to pGlu-peptide, i.e. if the γ-carboxylic group is protonated, the carbonyl carbon is electrophilic enough to allow nucleophilic attack by the unprotonated α-amino group. At this pH the hydroxyl ion functions as a leaving group (Scheme 3 below). These assumptions are corroborated by the pH-dependence data obtained for the QC catalyzed conversion of Glu-βNA (see example 11). In contrast to glutamine conversion of Gln-βNA by QC, the pH-optimum of catalysis shifts to the acidic range around pH 6.0, i.e. the pH-range, in which substrate molecule species are simultaneously abundant carrying a protonated γ-carboxyl and unprotonated α-amino group. Furthermore, the kinetically determined pKa-value of 7.55±0.02 is in excellent agreement with that of the α-amino group of Glu-βNA, determined by titration (7.57±0.05).
Physiologically, at pH 6.0 the second-order rate constant (or specificity constant, kcat/KM) of the QC-catalyzed glutamate cyclization might be in the range of 8,000 fold slower than the one for glutamine cyclization (
Since QC is highly abundant in the brain and taking into account the high turnover rate of 0.9 min−1 recently found for the maturation of 30 μM of (Gln-)TRH-like peptide (Prokai, L., Prokai-Tatrai, K., Ouyang, X., Kim, H. S., Wu, W. M., Zharikova, A., and Bodor, N. (1999) J Med Chem 42, 4563-4571), one can predict a cyclization half-life of about 100 hours for an appropriate glutamate-substrate, similar reaction conditions provided. Moreover, given compartmentalization and localization of brain QC/EC in the secretory pathway, the actual in vivo enzyme and substrate concentrations and reaction conditions might be even more favorable for the enzymatic cyclization in the intact cell. And, if N-terminal Glu is transformed to Gln a much more rapid pGlu-formation mediated by QC could be expected. In vitro, both reactions were suppressed by applying inhibitors of QC/EC-activity (
In summary, the present invention shows that human QC, which is highly abundant in the brain, is a likely catalyst to the formation of the amyloidogenic pGlu-Aβ peptides from Glu-Aβ and Gln-Aβ precursors, which make up more than 50% of the plaque deposits found in Alzheimer's disease. These findings identify QC/EC as a player in senile plaque formation and thus as a novel drug target in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.
Pharmaceutical Combinations
In a preferred embodiment, the present invention provides a composition, preferably a pharmaceutical composition, comprising at least one QC inhibitor optionally in combination with at least one other agent selected from the group consisting of nootropic agents, neuroprotectants, antiparkinsonian drugs, amyloid protein deposition inhibitors, beta amyloid synthesis inhibitors, antidepressants, anxiolytic drugs, antipsychotic drugs and anti-multiple sclerosis drugs.
More specifically, the aforementioned other agent is selected from the group consisting of beta-amyloid antibodies, cysteine protease inhibitors, PEP-inhibitors, LiCl, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors, PIMT enhancers, inhibitors of beta secretases, inhibitors of gamma secretases, inhibitors of aminopeptidases, preferably inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidases, most preferably DP IV inhibitors; inhibitors of neutral endopeptidase, inhibitors of Phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE-4), TNFalpha inhibitors, muscarinic M1 receptor antagonists, NMDA receptor antagonists, sigma-1 receptor inhibitors, histamine H3 antagonists, immunomodulatory agents, immunosuppressive agents, MCP-1 antagonists or an agent selected from the group consisting of antegren (natalizumab), Neurelan (fampridine-SR), campath (alemtuzumab), IR 208, NBI 5788/MSP 771 (tiplimotide), paclitaxel, Anergix.MS (AG 284), SH636, Differin (CD 271, adapalene), BAY 361677 (interleukin-4), matrix-metalloproteinase-inhibitors (e.g. BB 76163), interferon-tau (trophoblastin) and SAIK-MS.
Furthermore, the other agent may be, for example, an anti-anxiety drug or antidepressant selected from the group consisting of
In a further embodiment, the other agent may be, for example, an anti-multiple sclerosis drug selected from the group consisting of
Further, the present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions e.g. for parenteral, enteral or oral administration, comprising at least one QC inhibitor, optionally in combination with at least one of the other aforementioned agents.
These combinations provide a particularly beneficial effect. Such combinations are therefore shown to be effective and useful for the treatment of the aforementioned diseases. Accordingly, the invention provides a method for the treatment of these conditions.
The method comprises either co-administration of at least one QC inhibitor and at least one of the other agents or the sequential administration thereof.
Co-administration includes administration of a formulation, which comprises at least one QC inhibitor and at least one of the other agents or the essentially simultaneous administration of separate formulations of each agent.
Beta-amyloid antibodies and compositions containing the same are described, e.g. in WO 2006/137354, WO 2006/118959, WO 2006/103116, WO 2006/095041, WO 2006/081171, WO 2006/066233, WO 2006/066171, WO 2006/066089, WO 2006/066049, WO 2006/055178, WO 2006/046644, WO 2006/039470, WO 2006/036291, WO 2006/026408, WO 2006/016644, WO 2006/014638, WO 2006/014478, WO 2006/008661, WO 2005/123775, WO 2005/120571, WO 2005/105998, WO 2005/081872, WO 2005/080435, WO 2005/028511, WO 2005/025616, WO 2005/025516, WO 2005/023858, WO 2005/018424, WO 2005/011599, WO 2005/000193, WO 2004/108895, WO 2004/098631, WO 2004/080419, WO 2004/071408, WO 2004/069182, WO 2004/067561, WO 2004/044204, WO 2004/032868, WO 2004/031400, WO 2004/029630, WO 2004/029629, WO 2004/024770, WO 2004/024090, WO 2003/104437, WO 2003/089460, WO 2003/086310, WO 2003/077858, WO 2003/074081, WO 2003/070760, WO 2003/063760, WO 2003/055514, WO 2003/051374, WO 2003/048204, WO 2003/045128, WO 2003/040183, WO 2003/039467, WO 2003/016466, WO 2003/015691, WO 2003/014162, WO 2003/012141, WO 2002/088307, WO 2002/088306, WO 2002/074240, WO 2002/046237, WO 2002/046222, WO 2002/041842, WO 2001/062801, WO 2001/012598, WO 2000/077178, WO 2000/072880, WO 2000/063250, WO 1999/060024, WO 1999/027944, WO 1998/044955, WO 1996/025435, WO 1994/017197, WO 1990/014840, WO 1990/012871, WO 1990/012870, WO 1989/006242.
Suitable examples of beta-amyloid antibodies are ACU-5A5, huC091 (Acumen/Merck); PF-4360365, RI-1014, RI-1219, RI-409, RN-1219 (Rinat Neuroscience Corp (Pfizer Inc)); the nanobody therapeutics of Ablynx/Boehringer Ingelheim; beta-amyloid-specific humanized monoclonal antibodies of Intellect Neurosciences/IBL; m266, m266.2 (Eli Lilly & Co.); AAB-02 (Elan); bapineuzumab (Elan); BAN-2401 (Bioarctic Neuroscience AB); ABP-102 (Abiogen Pharma SpA); BA-27, BC-05 (Takeda); R-1450 (Roche); ESBA-212 (ESBATech AG); AZD-3102 (AstraZeneca) and beta-amyloid antibodies of Mindset BioPharmaceuticals Inc.
Suitable cysteine protease inhibitors are inhibitors of cathepsin B. Inhibitors of cathepsin B and compositions containing such inhibitors are described, e.g. in WO 2006/060473, WO 2006/042103, WO 2006/039807, WO 2006/021413, WO 2006/021409, WO 2005/097103, WO 2005/007199, WO2004/084830, WO 2004/078908, WO 2004/026851, WO 2002/094881, WO 2002/027418, WO 2002/021509, WO 1998/046559, WO 1996/021655.
Examples of suitable PIMT enhancers are 10-aminoaliphatyl-dibenz[b,f]oxepines described in WO 98/15647 and WO 03/057204, respectively. Further useful according to the present invention are modulators of PIMT activity described in WO 2004/039773.
Inhibitors of beta secretase and compositions containing such inhibitors are described, e.g. in WO03/059346, WO2006/099352, WO2006/078576, WO2006/060109, WO2006/057983, WO2006/057945, WO2006/055434, WO2006/044497, WO2006/034296, WO2006/034277, WO2006/029850, WO2006/026204, WO2006/014944, WO2006/014762, WO2006/002004, U.S. Pat. No. 7,109,217, WO2005/113484, WO2005/103043, WO2005/103020, WO2005/065195, WO2005/051914, WO2005/044830, WO2005/032471, WO2005/018545, WO2005/004803, WO2005/004802, WO2004/062625, WO2004/043916, WO2004/013098, WO03/099202, WO03/043987, WO03/039454, U.S. Pat. No. 6,562,783, WO02/098849 and WO02/096897.
Suitable examples of beta secretase inhibitors for the purpose of the present invention are WY-25105 (Wyeth); Posiphen, (+)-phenserine (TorreyPines/NIH); LSN-2434074, LY-2070275, LY-2070273, LY-2070102 (Eli Lilly & Co.); PNU-159775A, PNU-178025A, PNU-17820A, PNU-33312, PNU-38773, PNU-90530 (Elan/Pfizer); KMI-370, KMI-358, kmi-008 (Kyoto University); OM-99-2, OM-003 (Athenagen Inc.); AZ-12304146 (AstraZeneca/Astex); GW-840736X (GlaxoSmithKline plc.) and DNP-004089 (De Novo Pharmaceuticals Ltd.).
Inhibitors of gamma secretase and compositions containing such inhibitors are described, e.g. in WO2005/008250, WO2006/004880, U.S. Pat. No. 7,122,675, U.S. Pat. No. 7,030,239, U.S. Pat. No. 6,992,081, U.S. Pat. No. 6,982,264, WO2005/097768, WO2005/028440, WO2004/101562, U.S. Pat. No. 6,756,511, U.S. Pat. No. 6,683,091, WO03/066592, WO03/014075, WO03/013527, WO02/36555, WO01/53255, U.S. Pat. No. 7,109,217, U.S. Pat. No. 7,101,895, U.S. Pat. No. 7,049,296, U.S. Pat. No. 7,034,182, U.S. Pat. No. 6,984,626, WO2005/040126, WO2005/030731, WO2005/014553, U.S. Pat. No. 6,890,956, EP 1334085, EP 1263774, WO2004/101538, WO2004/00958, WO2004/089911, WO2004/073630, WO2004/069826, WO2004/039370, WO2004/031139, WO2004/031137, U.S. Pat. No. 6,713,276, U.S. Pat. No. 6,686,449, WO03/091278, U.S. Pat. No. 6,649,196, U.S. Pat. No. 6,448,229, WO01/77144 and WO01/66564.
Suitable gamma secretase inhibitors for the purpose of the present invention are GSI-953, WAY-GSI-A, WAY-GSI-B (Wyeth); MK-0752, MRK-560, L-852505, L-685-458, L-852631, L-852646 (Merck & Co. Inc.); LY-450139, LY-411575, AN-37124 (Eli Lilly & Co.); BMS-299897, BMS-433796 (Bristol-Myers Squibb Co.); E-2012 (Eisai Co. Ltd.); EHT-0206, EHT-206 (ExonHit Therapeutics SA); and NGX-555 (TorreyPines Therapeutics Inc.).
DP IV-inhibitors and compositions containing such inhibitors are described, e.g. in U.S. Pat. No. 6,011,155; U.S. Pat. No. 6,107,317; U.S. Pat. No. 6,110,949; U.S. Pat. No. 6,124,305; U.S. Pat. No. 6,172,081; WO99/61431, WO99/67278, WO99/67279, DE19834591, WO97/40832, WO95/15309, WO98/19998, WO00/07617, WO99/38501, WO99/46272, WO99/38501, WO01/68603, WO01/40180, WO01/81337, WO01/81304, WO01/55105, WO02/02560, WO01/34594, WO02/38541, WO02/083128, WO03/072556, WO03/002593, WO03/000250, WO03/000180, WO03/000181, EP1258476, WO03/002553, WO03/002531, WO03/002530, WO03/004496, WO03/004498, WO03/024942, WO03/024965, WO03/033524, WO03/035057, WO03/035067, WO03/037327, WO03/040174, WO03/045977, WO03/055881, WO03/057144, WO03/057666, WO03/068748, WO03/068757, WO03/082817, WO03/101449, WO03/101958, WO03/104229, WO03/74500, WO2004/007446, WO2004/007468, WO2004/018467, WO2004/018468, WO2004/018469, WO2004/026822, WO2004/032836, WO2004/033455, WO2004/037169, WO2004/041795, WO2004/043940, WO2004/048352, WO2004/050022, WO2004/052850, WO2004/058266, WO2004/064778, WO2004/069162, WO2004/071454, WO2004/076433, WO2004/076434, WO2004/087053, WO2004/089362, WO2004/099185, WO2004/103276, WO2004/103993, WO2004/108730, WO2004/110436, WO2004/111041, WO2004/112701, WO2005/000846, WO2005/000848, WO2005/011581, WO2005/016911, WO2005/023762, WO2005/025554, WO2005/026148, WO2005/030751, WO2005/033106, WO2005/037828, WO2005/040095, WO2005/044195, WO2005/047297, WO2005/051950, WO2005/056003, WO2005/056013, WO2005/058849, WO2005/075426, WO2005/082348, WO2005/085246, WO2005/087235, WO2005/095339, WO2005/095343, WO2005/095381, WO2005/108382, WO2005/113510, WO2005/116014, WO2005/116029, WO2005/118555, WO2005/120494, WO2005/121089, WO2005/121131, WO2005/123685, WO2006/995613; WO2006/009886; WO2006/013104; WO2006/017292; WO2006/019965; WO2006/020017; WO2006/023750; WO2006/039325; WO2006/041976; WO2006/047248; WO2006/058064; WO2006/058628; WO2006/066747; WO2006/066770 and WO2006/068978.
Suitable DP IV-inhibitors for the purpose of the present invention are for example Sitagliptin, des-fluoro-sitagliptin (Merck & Co. Inc.); vildagliptin, DPP-728, SDZ-272-070 (Novartis); ABT-279, ABT-341 (Abbott Laboratories); denagliptin, TA-6666 (GlaxoSmithKline plc.); SYR-322 (Takeda San Diego Inc.); talabostat (Point Therapeutics Inc.); Ro-0730699, R-1499, R-1438 (Roche Holding AG); FE-999011 (Ferring Pharmaceuticals); TS-021 (Taisho Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd.); GRC-8200 (Glenmark Pharmaceuticals Ltd.); ALS-2-0426 (Alantos Pharmaceuticals Holding Inc.); ARI-2243 (Arisaph Pharmaceuticals Inc.); SSR-162369 (Sanofi-Synthelabo); MP-513 (Mitsubishi Pharma Corp.); DP-893, CP-867534-01 (Pfizer Inc.); TSL-225, TMC-2A (Tanabe Seiyaku Co. Ltd.); PHX-1149 (Phenomenix Corp.); saxagliptin (Bristol-Myers Squibb Co.); PSN-9301 ((OSI) Prosidion), S-40755 (Servier); KRP-104 (ActivX Biosciences Inc.); sulphostin (Zaidan Hojin); KR-62436 (Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology); P32/98 (Probiodrug AG); BI-A, BI-B (Boehringer Ingelheim Corp.); SK-0403 (Sanwa Kagaku Kenkyusho Co. Ltd.); and NNC-72-2138 (Novo Nordisk A/S).
Other preferred DP IV-inhibitors are
(i) dipeptide-like compounds, disclosed in WO 99/61431, e.g. N-valyl prolyl, O-benzoyl hydroxylamine, alanyl pyrrolidine, isoleucyl thiazolidine like L-allo-isoleucyl thiazolidine, L-threo-isoleucyl pyrrolidine and salts thereof, especially the fumaric salts, and L-allo-isoleucyl pyrrolidine and salts thereof;
(ii) peptide structures, disclosed in WO 03/002593, e.g. tripeptides;
(iii) peptidylketones, disclosed in WO 03/033524;
(vi) substituted aminoketones, disclosed in WO 03/040174;
(v) topically active DP IV-inhibitors, disclosed in WO 01/14318;
(vi) prodrugs of DP IV-inhibitors, disclosed in WO 99/67278 and WO 99/67279; and
(v) glutaminyl based DP IV-inhibitors, disclosed in WO 03/072556 and WO 2004/099134.
Suitable beta amyloid synthesis inhibitors for the purpose of the present invention are for example Bisnorcymserine (Axonyx Inc.); (R)-flurbiprofen (MCP-7869; Flurizan) (Myriad Genetics); nitroflurbiprofen (NicOx); BGC-20-0406 (Sankyo Co. Ltd.) and BGC-20-0466 (BTG plc.).
Suitable amyloid protein deposition inhibitors for the purpose of the present invention are for example SP-233 (Samaritan Pharmaceuticals); AZD-103 (Ellipsis Neurotherapeutics Inc.); AAB-001 (Bapineuzumab), AAB-002, ACC-001 (Elan Corp plc.); Colostrinin (ReGen Therapeutics plc.); Tramiprosate (Neurochem); AdPEDI-(amyloid-beta1-6)11) (Vaxin Inc.); MPI-127585, MPI-423948 (Mayo Foundation); SP-08 (Georgetown University); ACU-5A5 (Acumen/Merck); Transthyretin (State University of New York); PTI-777, DP-74, DP 68, Exebryl (ProteoTech Inc.); m266 (Eli Lilly & Co.); EGb-761 (Dr. Willmar Schwabe GmbH); SPI-014 (Satori Pharmaceuticals Inc.); ALS-633, ALS-499 (Advanced Life Sciences Inc.); AGT-160 (ArmaGen Technologies Inc.); TAK-070 (Takeda Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd.); CHF-5022, CHF-5074, CHF-5096 and CHF-5105 (Chiesi Farmaceutici SpA.).
Suitable PDE-4 inhibitors for the purpose of the present invention are for example Doxofylline (Instituto Biologico Chemioterapica ABC SpA.); idudilast eye drops, tipelukast, ibudilast (Kyorin Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd.); theophylline (Elan Corp.); cilomilast (GlaxoSmithKline plc.); Atopik (Barrier Therapeutics Inc.); tofimilast, CI-1044, PD-189659, CP-220629, PDE 4d inhibitor BHN (Pfizer Inc.); arofylline, LAS-37779 (Almirall Prodesfarma SA.); roflumilast, hydroxypumafentrine (Altana AG), tetomilast (Otska Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd.); tipelukast, ibudilast (Kyorin Pharmaceutical), CC-10004 (Celgene Corp.); HT-0712, IPL-4088 (Inflazyme Pharmaceuticals Ltd.); MEM-1414, MEM-1917 (Memory Pharmaceuticals Corp.); oglemilast, GRC-4039 (Glenmark Pharmaceuticals Ltd.); AWD-12-281, ELB-353, ELB-526 (Elbion AG); EHT-0202 (ExonHit Therapeutics SA.); ND-1251 (Neuro3d SA.); 4AZA-PDE4 (4 AZA Bioscience NV.); AVE-8112 (Sanofi-Aventis); CR-3465 (Rottapharm SpA.); GP-0203, NCS-613 (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique); KF-19514 (Kyowa Hakko Kogyo Co. Ltd.); ONO-6126 (Ono Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd.); OS-0217 (Dainippon Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd.); IBFB-130011, IBFB-150007, IBFB-130020, IBFB-140301 (IBFB Pharma GmbH); IC-485 (ICOS Corp.); RBx-14016 and RBx-11082 (Ranbaxy Laboratories Ltd.). A preferred PDE-4-inhibitor is Rolipram.
MAO inhibitors and compositions containing such inhibitors are described, e.g. in WO2006/091988, WO2005/007614, WO2004/089351, WO01/26656, WO01/12176, WO99/57120, WO99/57119, WO99/13878, WO98/40102, WO98/01157, WO96/20946, WO94/07890 and WO92/21333.
Suitable MAO-inhibitors for the purpose of the present invention are for example Linezolid (Pharmacia Corp.); RWJ-416457 (RW Johnson Pharmaceutical Research Institute); budipine (Altana AG); GPX-325 (BioResearch Ireland); isocarboxazid; phenelzine; tranylcypromine; indantadol (Chiesi Farmaceutici SpA.); moclobemide (Roche Holding AG); SL-25.1131 (Sanofi-Synthelabo); CX-1370 (Burroughs Wellcome Co.); CX-157 (Krenitsky Pharmaceuticals Inc.); desoxypeganine (HF Arzneimittelforschung GmbH & Co. KG); bifemelane (Mitsubishi-Tokyo Pharmaceuticals Inc.); RS-1636 (Sankyo Co. Ltd.); esuprone (BASF AG); rasagiline (Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd.); ladostigil (Hebrew University of Jerusalem); safinamide (Pfizer) and NW-1048 (Newron Pharmaceuticals SpA.).
Suitable histamine H3 antagonists for the purpose of the present invention are, e.g. ABT-239, ABT-834 (Abbott Laboratories); 3874-H1 (Aventis Pharma); UCL-2173 (Berlin Free University), UCL-1470 (BioProjet, Societe Civile de Recherche); DWP-302 (Daewoong Pharmaceutical Co Ltd); GSK-189254A, GSK-207040A (GlaxoSmithKline Inc.); cipralisant, GT-2203 (Gliatech Inc.); Ciproxifan (INSERM), 1S,2S)-2-(2-Aminoethyl)-1-(1H-imidazol-4-yl)cyclopropane (Hokkaido University); JNJ-17216498, JNJ-5207852 (Johnson & Johnson); NNC-0038-0000-1049 (Novo Nordisk A/S); and Sch-79687 (Schering-Plough).
PEP inhibitors and compositions containing such inhibitors are described, e.g. in JP 01042465, JP 03031298, JP 04208299, WO 00/71144, U.S. Pat. No. 5,847,155; JP 09040693, JP 10077300, JP 05331072, JP 05015314, WO 95/15310, WO 93/00361, EP 0556482, JP 06234693, JP 01068396, EP 0709373, U.S. Pat. No. 5,965,556, U.S. Pat. No. 5,756,763, U.S. Pat. No. 6,121,311, JP 63264454, JP 64000069, JP 63162672, EP 0268190, EP 0277588, EP 0275482, U.S. Pat. No. 4,977,180, U.S. Pat. No. 5,091,406, U.S. Pat. No. 4,983,624, U.S. Pat. No. 5,112,847, U.S. Pat. No. 5,100,904, U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,550, U.S. Pat. No. 5,262,431, U.S. Pat. No. 5,340,832, U.S. Pat. No. 4,956,380, EP 0303434, JP 03056486, JP 01143897, JP 1226880, EP 0280956, U.S. Pat. No. 4,857,537, EP 0461677, EP 0345428, JP 02275858, U.S. Pat. No. 5,506,256, JP 06192298, EP 0618193, JP 03255080, EP 0468469, U.S. Pat. No. 5,118,811, JP 05025125, WO 9313065, JP 05201970, WO 9412474, EP 0670309, EP 0451547, JP 06339390, U.S. Pat. No. 5,073,549, U.S. Pat. No. 4,999,349, EP 0268281, U.S. Pat. No. 4,743,616, EP 0232849, EP 0224272, JP 62114978, JP 62114957, U.S. Pat. No. 4,757,083, U.S. Pat. No. 4,810,721, U.S. Pat. No. 5,198,458, U.S. Pat. No. 4,826,870, EP 0201742, EP 0201741, U.S. Pat. No. 4,873,342, EP 0172458, JP 61037764, EP 0201743, U.S. Pat. No. 4,772,587, EP 0372484, U.S. Pat. No. 5,028,604, WO 91/18877, JP 04009367, JP 04235162, U.S. Pat. No. 5,407,950, WO 95/01352, JP 01250370, JP 02207070, U.S. Pat. No. 5,221,752, EP 0468339, JP 04211648, WO 99/46272, WO 2006/058720 and PCT/EP2006/061428.
Suitable prolyl endopeptidase inhibitors for the purpose of the present invention are, e.g. Fmoc-Ala-Pyrr-CN, Z-Phe-Pro-Benzothiazole (Probiodrug), Z-321 (Zeria Pharmaceutical Co Ltd.); ONO-1603 (Ono Pharmaceutical Co Ltd); JTP-4819 (Japan Tobacco Inc.) and S-17092 (Servier).
Other suitable compounds that can be used according to the present invention in combination with QC-inhibitors are NPY, an NPY mimetic or an NPY agonist or antagonist or a ligand of the NPY receptors.
Preferred according to the present invention are antagonists of the NPY receptors.
Suitable ligands or antagonists of the NPY receptors are 3a,4,5,9b-tetrahydro-1h-benz[e]indol-2-yl amine-derived compounds as disclosed in WO 00/68197.
NPY receptor antagonists which may be mentioned include those disclosed in European patent applications EP 0 614 911, EP 0 747 357, EP 0 747 356 and EP 0 747 378; international patent applications WO 94/17035, WO 97/19911, WO 97/19913, WO 96/12489, WO 97/19914, WO 96/22305, WO 96/40660, WO 96/12490, WO 97/09308, WO 97/20820, WO 97/20821, WO 97/20822, WO 97/20823, WO 97/19682, WO 97/25041, WO 97/34843, WO 97/46250, WO 98/03492, WO 98/03493, WO 98/03494 and WO 98/07420; WO 00/30674, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,552,411, 5,663,192 and 5,567,714; 6,114,336, Japanese patent application JP 09157253; international patent applications WO 94/00486, WO 93/12139, WO 95/00161 and WO 99/15498; U.S. Pat. No. 5,328,899; German patent application DE 393 97 97; European patent applications EP 355 794 and EP 355 793; and Japanese patent applications JP 06116284 and JP 07267988. Preferred NPY antagonists include those compounds that are specifically disclosed in these patent documents. More preferred compounds include amino acid and non-peptide-based NPY antagonists. Amino acid and non-peptide-based NPY antagonists which may be mentioned include those disclosed in European patent applications EP 0 614 911, EP 0 747 357, EP 0 747 356 and EP 0 747 378; international patent applications WO 94/17035, WO 97/19911, WO 97/19913, WO 96/12489, WO 97/19914, WO 96/22305, WO 96/40660, WO 96/12490, WO 97/09308, WO 97/20820, WO 97/20821, WO 97/20822, WO 97/20823, WO 97/19682, WO 97/25041, WO 97/34843, WO 97/46250, WO 98/03492, WO 98/03493, WO 98/03494, WO 98/07420 and WO 99/15498; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,552,411, 5,663,192 and 5,567,714; and Japanese patent application JP 09157253. Preferred amino acid and non-peptide-based NPY antagonists include those compounds that are specifically disclosed in these patent documents.
Particularly preferred compounds include amino acid-based NPY antagonists. Amino acid-based compounds, which may be mentioned include those disclosed in international patent applications WO 94/17035, WO 97/19911, WO 97/19913, WO 97/19914 or, preferably, WO 99/15498. Preferred amino acid-based NPY antagonists include those that are specifically disclosed in these patent documents, for example BIBP3226 and, especially, (R)—N2-(diphenylacetyl)-(R)—N-[1-(4-hydroxy-phenyl)ethyl]arginine amide (Example 4 of international patent application WO 99/15498).
M1 receptor agonists and compositions containing such inhibitors are described, e.g. in WO2004/087158, WO91/10664.
Suitable M1 receptor antagonists for the purpose of the present invention are for example CDD-0102 (Cognitive Pharmaceuticals); Cevimeline (Evoxac) (Snow Brand Milk Products Co. Ltd.); NGX-267 (TorreyPines Therapeutics); sabcomeline (GlaxoSmithKline); alvameline (H Lundbeck A/S); LY-593093 (Eli Lilly & Co.); VRTX-3 (Vertex Pharmaceuticals Inc.); WAY-132983 (Wyeth) and CI-101 7/(PD-151832) (Pfizer Inc.).
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and compositions containing such inhibitors are described, e.g. in WO2006/071274, WO2006/070394, WO2006/040688, WO2005/092009, WO2005/079789, WO2005/039580, WO2005/027975, WO2004/084884, WO2004/037234, WO2004/032929, WO03/101458, WO03/091220, WO03/082820, WO03/020289, WO02/32412, WO01/85145, WO01/78728, WO01/66096, WO00/02549, WO01/00215, WO00/15205, WO00/23057, WO00/33840, WO00/30446, WO00/23057, WO00/15205, WO00/09483, WO00/07600, WO00/02549, WO99/47131, WO99/07359, WO98/30243, WO97/38993, WO97/13754, WO94/29255, WO94/20476, WO94/19356, WO93/03034 and WO92/19238.
Suitable acetylcholinesterase inhibitors for the purpose of the present invention are for example Donepezil (Eisai Co. Ltd.); rivastigmine (Novartis AG); (−)-phenserine (TorreyPines Therapeutics); ladostigil (Hebrew University of Jerusalem); huperzine A (Mayo Foundation); galantamine (Johnson & Johnson); Memoquin (Universita di Bologna); SP-004 (Samaritan Pharmaceuticals Inc.); BGC-20-1259 (Sankyo Co. Ltd.); physostigmine (Forest Laboratories Inc.); NP-0361 (Neuropharma SA); ZT-1 (Debiopharm); tacrine (Warner-Lambert Co.); metrifonate (Bayer Corp.) and INM-176 (Whanln).
NMDA receptor antagonists and compositions containing such inhibitors are described, e.g. in WO2006/094674, WO2006/058236, WO2006/058059, WO2006/010965, WO2005/000216, WO2005/102390, WO2005/079779, WO2005/079756, WO2005/072705, WO2005/070429, WO2005/055996, WO2005/035522, WO2005/009421, WO2005/000216, WO2004/092189, WO2004/039371, WO2004/028522, WO2004/009062, WO03/010159, WO02/072542, WO02/34718, WO01/98262, WO01/94321, WO01/92204, WO01/81295, WO01/32640, WO01/10833, WO01/10831, WO00/56711, WO00/29023, WO00/00197, WO99/53922, WO99/48891, WO99/45963, WO99/01416, WO99/07413, WO99/01416, WO98/50075, WO98/50044, WO98/10757, WO98/05337, WO97/32873, WO97/23216, WO97/23215, WO97/23214, WO96/14318, WO96/08485, WO95/31986, WO95/26352, WO95/26350, WO95/26349, WO95/26342, WO95/12594, WO95/02602, WO95/02601, WO94/20109, WO94/13641, WO94/09016 and WO93/25534.
Suitable NMDA receptor antagonists for the purpose of the present invention are for example Memantine (Merz & Co. GmbH); topiramate (Johnson & Johnson); AVP-923 (Neurodex) (Center for Neurologic Study); EN-3231 (Endo Pharmaceuticals Holdings Inc.); neramexane (MRZ-2/579) (Merz and Forest); CNS-5161 (CeNeS Pharmaceuticals Inc.); dexanabinol (HU-211; Sinnabidol; PA-50211) (Pharmos); EpiCept NP-1 (Dalhousie University); indantadol (V-3381; CNP-3381) (Vernalis); perzinfotel (EAA-090, WAY-126090, EAA-129) (Wyeth); RGH-896 (Gedeon Richter Ltd.); traxoprodil (CP-101606), besonprodil (PD-196860, CI-1041) (Pfizer Inc.); CGX-1007 (Cognetix Inc.); delucemine (NPS-1506) (NPS Pharmaceuticals Inc.); EVT-101 (Roche Holding AG); acamprosate (Synchroneuron LLC.); CR-3991, CR-2249, CR-3394 (Rottapharm SpA.); AV-101 (4-CI-kynurenine (4-CI-KYN)), 7-chloro-kynurenic acid (7-CI-KYNA) (VistaGen); NPS-1407 (NPS Pharmaceuticals Inc.); YT-1006 (Yaupon Therapeutics Inc.); ED-1812 (Sosei R&D Ltd.); himantane (hydrochloride N-2-(adamantly)-hexamethylen-imine) (RAMS); Lancicemine (AR-R-15896) (AstraZeneca); EVT-102, Ro-25-6981 and Ro-63-1908 (Hoffmann-La Roche AG/Evotec).
Furthermore, the present invention relates to combination therapies useful for the treatment of atherosclerosis, restenosis or arthritis, administering a QC inhibitor in combination with another therapeutic agent selected from the group consisting of inhibitors of the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE); angiotensin II receptor blockers; diuretics; calcium channel blockers (CCB); beta-blockers; platelet aggregation inhibitors; cholesterol absorption modulators; HMG-Co-A reductase inhibitors; high density lipoprotein (HDL) increasing compounds; renin inhibitors; IL-6 inhibitors; antiinflammatory corticosteroids; antiproliferative agents; nitric oxide donors; inhibitors of extracellular matrix synthesis; growth factor or cytokine signal transduction inhibitors; MCP-1 antagonists and tyrosine kinase inhibitors providing beneficial or synergistic therapeutic effects over each monotherapy component alone.
Angiotensin II receptor blockers are understood to be those active agents that bind to the AT1-receptor subtype of angiotensin II receptor but do not result in activation of the receptor. As a consequence of the blockade of the AT1 receptor, these antagonists can, e.g. be employed as antihypertensive agents.
Suitable angiotensin II receptor blockers which may be employed in the combination of the present invention include AT1 receptor antagonists having differing structural features, preferred are those with non-peptidic structures. For example, mention may be made of the compounds that are selected from the group consisting of valsartan (EP 443983), losartan (EP 253310), candesartan (EP 459136), eprosartan (EP 403159), irbesartan (EP 454511), olmesartan (EP 503785), tasosartan (EP 539086), telmisartan (EP 522314), the compound with the designation E-41 77 of the formula
the compound with the designation SC-52458 of the following formula
and the compound with the designation the compound ZD-8731 of the formula
or, in each case, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
Preferred AT1-receptor antagonists are those agents that have been approved and reached the market, most preferred is valsartan, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
The interruption of the enzymatic degradation of angiotensin to angiotensin II with ACE inhibitors is a successful variant for the regulation of blood pressure and thus also makes available a therapeutic method for the treatment of hypertension.
A suitable ACE inhibitor to be employed in the combination of the present invention is, e.g. a compound selected from the group consisting alacepril, benazepril, benazeprilat; captopril, ceronapril, cilazapril, delapril, enalapril, enaprilat, fosinopril, imidapril, lisinopril, moveltopril, perindopril, quinapril, ramipril, spirapril, temocapril and trandolapril, or in each case, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
Preferred ACE inhibitors are those agents that have been marketed, most preferred are benazepril and enalapril.
A diuretic is, for example, a thiazide derivative selected from the group consisting of chlorothiazide, hydrochlorothiazide, methylclothiazide, and chlorothalidon. The most preferred diuretic is hydrochlorothiazide. A diuretic furthermore comprises a potassium sparing diuretic such as amiloride or triameterine, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
The class of CCBs essentially comprises dihydropyridines (DHPs) and non-DHPs, such as diltiazem-type and verapamil-type CCBs.
A CCB useful in said combination is preferably a DHP representative selected from the group consisting of amlodipine, felodipine, ryosidine, isradipine, lacidipine, nicardipine, nifedipine, niguldipine, niludipine, nimodipine, nisoldipine, nitrendipine and nivaldipine, and is preferably a non-DHP representative selected from the group consisting of flunarizine, prenylamine, diltiazem, fendiline, gallopamil, mibefradil, anipamil, tiapamil and verapamil, and in each case, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. All these CCBs are therapeutically used, e.g. as anti-hypertensive, anti-angina pectoris or anti-arrhythmic drugs.
Preferred CCBs comprise amlodipine, diltiazem, isradipine, nicardipine, nifedipine, nimodipine, nisoldipine, nitrendipine and verapamil or, e.g. dependent on the specific CCB, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Especially preferred as DHP is amlodipine or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, especially the besylate. An especially preferred representative of non-DHPs is verapamil or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, especially the hydrochloride, thereof.
Beta-blockers suitable for use in the present invention include beta-adrenergic blocking agents (beta-blockers), which compete with epinephrine for beta-adrenergic receptors and interfere with the action of epinephrine. Preferably, the beta-blockers are selective for the beta-adrenergic receptor as compared to the alpha-adrenergic receptors, and so do not have a significant alpha-blocking effect. Suitable beta-blockers include compounds selected from acebutolol, atenolol, betaxolol, bisoprolol, carteolol, carvedilol, esmolol, labetalol, metoprolol, nadolol, oxprenolol, penbutolol, pindolol, propranolol, sotalol and timolol. Where the beta-blocker is an acid or base or otherwise capable of forming pharmaceutically acceptable salts or prodrugs, these forms are considered to be encompassed herein, and it is understood that the compounds may be administered in free form or in the form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or a prodrug, such as a physiologically hydrolyzable and acceptable ester. For example, metoprolol is suitably administered as its tartrate salt, propranolol is suitably administered as the hydrochloride salt, and so forth.
Platelet aggregation inhibitors include PLAVIX® (clopidogrel bisulfate), PLETAL® (cilostazol) and aspirin.
Cholesterol absorption modulators include ZETIA® (ezetimibe) and KT6-971 (Kotobuki Pharmaceutical Co. Japan).
HMG-Co-A reductase inhibitors (also called beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl-co-enzyme-A reductase inhibitors or statins) are understood to be those active agents which may be used to lower lipid levels including cholesterol in blood.
The class of HMG-Co-A reductase inhibitors comprises compounds having differing structural features. For example, mention may be made of the compounds, which are selected from the group consisting of atorvastatin, cerivastatin, fluvastatin, lovastatin, pitavastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin and simvastatin, or in each case, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
Preferred HMG-Co-A reductase inhibitors are those agents, which have been marketed, most preferred is atorvastatin, pitavastatin or simvastatin, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
HDL-increasing compounds include, but are not limited to, cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors. Examples of CETP inhibitors include JTT705 disclosed in Example 26 of U.S. Pat. No. 6,426,365 issued Jul. 30, 2002, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.
Inhibition of interleukin 6 mediated inflammation may be achieved indirectly through regulation of endogenous cholesterol synthesis and isoprenoid depletion or by direct inhibition of the signal transduction pathway utilizing interleukin-6 inhibitor/antibody, interleukin-6 receptor inhibitor/antibody, interleukin-6 antisense oligonucleotide (ASON), gp130 protein inhibitor/antibody, tyrosine kinase inhibitors/antibodies, serine/threonine kinase inhibitors/antibodies, mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase inhibitors/antibodies, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitors/antibodies, Nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB) inhibitors/antibodies, IκB kinase (IKK) inhibitors/antibodies, activator protein-1 (AP-1) inhibitors/antibodies, STAT transcription factors inhibitors/antibodies, altered IL-6, partial peptides of IL-6 or IL-6 receptor, or SOCS (suppressors of cytokine signaling) protein, PPAR gamma and/or PPAR beta/delta activators/ligands or a functional fragment thereof.
A suitable antiinflammatory corticosteroid is dexamethasone.
Suitable antiproliferative agents are cladribine, rapamycin, vincristine and taxol.
A suitable inhibitor of extracellular matrix synthesis is halofuginone.
A suitable growth factor or cytokine signal transduction inhibitor is, e.g. the ras inhibitor R115777.
A suitable tyrosine kinase inhibitor is tyrphostin.
Suitable renin inhibitors are described, e.g. in WO 2006/116435. A preferred renin inhibitor is aliskiren, preferably in the form of the hemi-fumarate salt thereof.
MCP-1 antagonists may, e.g. be selected from anti-MCP-1 antibodies, preferably monoclonal or humanized monoclonal antibodies, MCP-1 expression inhibitors, CCR2-antagonists, TNF-alpha inhibitors, VCAM-1 gene expression inhibitors and anti-C5a monoclonal antibodies.
MCP-1 antagonists and compositions containing such inhibitors are described, e.g. in WO02/070509, WO02/081463, WO02/060900, US2006/670364, US2006/677365, WO2006/097624, US2006/316449, WO2004/056727, WO03/053368, WO00/198289, WO00/157226, WO00/046195, WO00/046196, WO00/046199, WO00/046198, WO00/046197, WO99/046991, WO99/007351, WO98/006703, WO97/012615, WO2005/105133, WO03/037376, WO2006/125202, WO2006/085961, WO2004/024921, WO2006/074265.
Suitable MCP-1 antagonists are, for instance, C-243 (Telik Inc.); NOX-E36 (Noxxon Pharma AG); AP-761 (Actimis Pharmaceuticals Inc.); ABN-912, NIBR-177 (Novartis AG); CC-11006 (Celgene Corp.); SSR-150106 (Sanofi-Aventis); MLN-1202 (Millenium Pharmaceuticals Inc.); AGI-1067, AGIX-4207, AGI-1096 (AtherioGenics Inc.); PRS-211095, PRS-211092 (Pharmos Corp.); anti-C5a monoclonal antibodies, e.g. neutrazumab (G2 Therapies Ltd.); AZD-6942 (AstraZeneca plc.); 2-mercaptoimidazoles (Johnson & Johnson); TEI-E00526, TEI-6122 (Deltagen); RS-504393 (Roche Holding AG); SB-282241, SB-380732, ADR-7 (GlaxoSmithKline); anti-MCP-1 monoclonal antibodies (Johnson & Johnson).
Combinations of QC-inhibitors with MCP-1 antagonists may be useful for the treatment of inflammatory diseases in general, including neurodegenerative diseases.
Combinations of QC-inhibitors with MCP-1 antagonists are preferred for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.
Most preferably the QC inhibitor is combined with one or more compounds selected from the following group:
PF-4360365, m266, bapineuzumab, R-1450, Posiphen, (+)-phenserine, MK-0752, LY-450139, E-2012, (R)-flurbiprofen, AZD-103, AAB-001 (Bapineuzumab), Tramiprosate, EGb-761, TAK-070, Doxofylline, theophylline, cilomilast, tofimilast, roflumilast, tetomilast, tipelukast, ibudilast, HT-0712, MEM-1414, oglemilast, Linezolid, budipine, isocarboxazid, phenelzine, tranylcypromine, indantadol, moclobemide, rasagiline, ladostigil, safinamide, ABT-239, ABT-834, GSK-189254A, Ciproxifan, JNJ-17216498, Fmoc-Ala-Pyrr-CN, Z-Phe-Pro-Benzothiazole, Z-321, ONO-1603, JTP-4819, S-17092, BIBP3226; (R)—N2-(diphenylacetyl)-(R)—N-[1-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]arginine amide, Cevimeline, sabcomeline, (PD-151832), Donepezil, rivastigmine, (−)-phenserine, ladostigil, galantamine, tacrine, metrifonate, Memantine, topiramate, AVP-923, EN-3231, neramexane, valsartan, benazepril, enalapril, hydrochlorothiazide, amlodipine, diltiazem, isradipine, nicardipine, nifedipine, nimodipine, nisoldipine, nitrendipine, verapamil, amlodipine, acebutolol, atenolol, betaxolol, bisoprolol, carteolol, carvedilol, esmolol, labetalol, metoprolol, nadolol, oxprenolol, penbutolol, pindolol, propranolol, sotalol, timolol, PLAVIX® (clopidogrel bisulfate), PLETAL® (cilostazol), aspirin, ZETIA® (ezetimibe) and KT6-971, statins, atorvastatin, pitavastatin or simvastatin; dexamethasone, cladribine, rapamycin, vincristine, taxol, aliskiren, C-243, ABN-912, SSR-150106, MLN-1202 and betaferon.
In particular, the following combinations are considered:
Such a combination therapy is in particular useful for AD, FAD, FDD and neurodegeneration in Down syndrome as well as atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, restenosis and pancreatitis.
Such combination therapies might result in a better therapeutic effect (less proliferation as well as less inflammation, a stimulus for proliferation) than would occur with either agent alone.
With regard to the specific combination of inhibitors of QC and further compounds it is referred in particular to WO 2004/098625 in this regard, which is incorporated herein by reference.
In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, it was found that amyloid β-derived peptides are a substrate of dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DP IV) or DP IV-like enzymes, preferably dipeptidyl peptidase II (DPII). DP IV, DP II or other DP IV-like enzymes release a dipeptide from the N-terminus of the modified amyloid β-peptide (1-11) generating amyloid β-peptide (3-11) with glutamine as the N-terminal amino acid residue. The results are shown in example 8.
DP IV-like enzymes, which have been identified so far, include e.g. fibroblast activation protein α, dipeptidyl peptidase IV β, dipeptidyl aminopeptidase-like protein, N-acetylated α-linked acidic dipeptidase, quiescent cell proline dipeptidase, dipeptidyl peptidase II, attractin and dipeptidyl peptidase IV related protein (DPP 8), DPL1 (DPX, DP6), DPL2 and DPP 9 described in review articles by Sedo & Malik (Sedo and Malik 2001, Biochim Biophys Acta, 36506, 1-10) and Abbott and Gorrell (Abbott, C. A. and Gorrell, M. D. 2002 In: Langner & Ansorge (ed.), Ectopeptidases. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, 171-195). Recently, the cloning and characterization of dipeptidyl peptidase 10 (DPP 10) was reported (Qi, S. Y. et al., Biochemical Journal Immediate Publication. Published on 28 Mar. 2003 as manuscript BJ20021914).
Prior to cleavage by DP II, DPIV or other DP IV-like enzymes, the peptide bond between aspartic acid (residue 1 of amyloid β-peptide) and alanine (residue 2 of amyloid β-peptide) may be isomerised yielding an isoaspartyl residue as described in the literature (Kuo, Y.-M. et al., (1997) BBRC 237, 188-191; Shimizu, T. et al., (2000) Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 381, 225-234).
These isoaspartyl residues render the amyloid β-peptide resistant against aminopeptidase degradation and consequently the core plaques contain high amounts of isoAsp1-amyloid β-peptides, which suggests a reduced turnover at the N-terminus.
However, in the present invention it is demonstrated for the first time, that the N-terminal dipeptide H-isoAsp1-Ala2-OH can be released by dipeptidyl peptidases especially under acidic conditions. Furthermore, it was shown that isomerization can precede also cleavage by β-secretase, and that isomerization may accelerate proteolytic processing, thus leading to liberation of an N-terminal isoaspartyl bond of isoAsp1-amyloid β-peptides which subsequently is subject to turnover by DP II, DPIV or DP IV-like enzymes (Momand, J. and Clarke, S. (1987) Biochemistry 26, 7798-7805; Kuo, Y.-M. et al., (1997) BBRC 237, 188-191). Accordingly, inhibition of isoaspartyl formation may lead to the reduction of cleavage by β-secretase and, in turn, to a reduced formation of amyloid β-peptides. In addition, blockage of the isoAsp1-amyloid β-peptide turnover by inhibition of DP II, DPIV or DP IV-like enzymes would prevent the exposure of [Glu3]Aβ to QC/EC-catalyzed formation of [pGlu3]Aβ.
In a third embodiment of the present invention, a combination of inhibitors of DP IV-activity and of inhibitors of QC can be used for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and neurodegeneration in Down Syndrome.
The combined effect of DP IV and/or DP IV-like enzymes and of QC is illustrated as follows:
The N-terminal Gln-exposure to QC-activity can also be triggered by different peptidase activities. Aminopeptidases can remove sequentially Asp and Ala from the N-terminus of Aβ(1-40/42), thus unmasking amino acid three that is prone to cyclization. Dipeptidyl peptidases, such as DP I, DP II, DP IV, DP 8, DP 9 and DP 10, remove the dipeptide Asp-Ala in one step. Hence, inhibition of aminopeptidase- or dipeptidylpeptidase-activity is useful to prevent the formation of Aβ(3-40/42).
Under certain disease conditions, e.g. Alzheimers disease with pronounced neuroinflammation involving MCP-1 mediated microglial activation, inhibition of DPIV and DPIV-like enzymes is not indicated. In those cases, QC-inhibition is required for suppression of pGlu-Aβ formation and MCP-1 inactivation caused by N-terminal cleavage as described in example 16.
Another aspect of the present invention is the identification of new molecular pathways leading to generation of substrates of QC and, in turn, to pGlu-peptides.
In particular, generation of N-terminally modified Aβ peptides was subject of the invention. It can be shown, that formation of pGlu-Aβ depends strongly on the APP protein sequence surrounding the cleavage site of β-secretase (BACE). N-terminally truncated and pGlu-modified peptides are formed in high amounts, if the APP displays the wild-type sequence at the cleavage site. N-terminally pGlu-modified peptides are formed at lower concentrations, if the so-called swedish mutation was present at the cleavage site of BACE.
The results clearly point to a direct, presumably an endoproteolytic, formation of the N-terminus of N-truncated peptides. These alternative processing pathways lead to the identification of other target proteases exhibiting β-secretase activity, which are potential targets to treat the formation of N-truncated Aβ peptides, preferably Aβ(3-42) and Aβ(3-40). The experiments are outlined in Example 18.
The combined effect of inhibitors of DP IV and/or DP IV-like enzymes and of activity lowering effectors of QC is illustrated in the following way:
Within the present invention, a similar combined action of DP IV or DP IV-like enzymes and QC was demonstrated for further peptide hormones, such as glucagon, CC chemokines and substance P.
Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide released from pancreatic islet alpha-cells that acts to maintain euglycemia by stimulating hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Despite its importance, there remains controversy about the mechanisms responsible for glucagon clearance in the body. Pospisilik et al. assessed the enzymatic metabolism of glucagon using sensitive mass spectrometric techniques to identify the molecular products. Incubation of glucagon with purified porcine dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DP IV) yielded sequential production of glucagon(3-29) and glucagon(5-29). In human serum, degradation to glucagon3-29 was rapidly followed by N-terminal cyclization of glucagon, preventing further DP IV-mediated hydrolysis. Bioassay of glucagon, following incubation with purified DP IV or normal rat serum demonstrated a significant loss of hyperglycemic activity, while a similar incubation in DP IV-deficient rat serum did not show any loss of glucagon bioactivity. The specific DP IV inhibitor, isoleucyl thiazolidine, blocked glucagon degradation, monitored by mass spectrometry and bioassay. These results identify DP IV as a primary enzyme involved in the degradation and inactivation of glucagon. These findings have important implications for the determination of glucagon levels in human plasma (Pospisilik et al., Regul Pept 2001 Jan. 12; 96(3): 133-41).
Human Monocyte Chemotactic Protein (MCP)-2 has originally been isolated from stimulated osteosarcoma cells as a chemokine coproduced with MCP-1 and MCP-3. Van Coillie et al. (Van Coillie, E. et al. 1998 Biochemistry 37, 12672-12680) cloned a 5′-end extended MCP-2 cDNA from a human testis cDNA library. It encoded a 76 residue MCP-2 protein, but differed from the reported bone marrow-derived MCP-2 cDNA sequence in codon 46, which coded for a Lys instead of a Gln. This MCP-2Lys46 variant, caused by a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), was biologically compared with MCP-2Gln46. The coding regions were sub-cloned into the bacterial expression vector pHEN1, and after transformation of Escherichia coli, the two MCP-2 protein variants were recovered from the periplasm. Edman degradation revealed a Gln residue at the NH2 terminus instead of a pGlu. rMCP-2Gln46 and rMCP-2Lys46 and the NH2-terminal cyclic counterparts were tested on monocytic cells in calcium mobilization and chemotaxis assays. No significant difference in biological activity was observed between the rMCP-2Gln46 and rMCP-2Lys46 isoforms. However, for both MCP-2 variants the NH2-terminal pyroglutamate was shown to be essential for chemotaxis, but not for calcium mobilization. NH2-terminal truncation of rMCP-2Lys46 by the serine protease CD26/dipeptidyl peptidase IV (CD26/DPP IV) resulted in the release of the NH2-terminal Gln-Pro dipeptide, whereas synthetic MCP-2 with an amino-terminal pGlu remained unaffected. CD26/DPP IV-clipped rMCP-2Lys46(3-76) was almost completely inactive in both chemotaxis and signaling assays. These observations indicated that the NH2-terminal pGlu in MCP-2 is necessary for chemotactic activity but also that it protects the protein against degradation by CD26/DPP IV (van Coillie, E. et al. Biochemistry 1998 37, 12672-80).
Within the present invention, it was determined by LC/MS-analysis that the formation of the N-terminal pyroglutamate residue determined in glucagon(3-29) (Pospisilik et al., 2001), and in MCP-2 isoforms (van Coillie et al., 1998), is catalyzed by QC.
In addition, it was proven by LC/MS-investigation that after N-terminal DP IV-catalyzed removal of the two dipeptides Lys-Pro and Arg-Pro from substance P the remaining [Gln5]substanceP(5-11) is transformed by QC to [pGlu5]substanceP(5-11).
Definitions
In the peptides of the present invention, each amino acid residue is represented by a one-letter or a three-letter designation, corresponding to the trivial name of the amino acid, in accordance with the following conventional list:
Enzyme Inhibitors, in Particular Inhibitors of QC
Reversible enzyme inhibitors: comprise competitive inhibitors, non-competitive reversible inhibitors, slow-binding or tight-binding inhibitors, transition state analogues and multisubstrate analogues.
Competitive Inhibitors Show
i) non-covalent interactions with the enzyme,
ii) compete with substrate for the enzyme active site,
The principal mechanism of action of a reversible enzyme inhibitor and the definition of the dissociation constant can be visualized as follows:
The formation of the enzyme-inhibitor [E-I] complex prevents binding of substrates, therefore the reaction cannot proceed to the normal physiological product, P. A larger inhibitor concentration [I] leads to larger [E-I], leaving less free enzyme to which the substrate can bind.
Non-Competitive Reversible Inhibitors
i) bind at a site other than active site (allosteric binding site)
ii) cause a conformational change in the enzyme which decreases or stops catalytic activity.
Slow-Binding or Tight-Binding Inhibitors
i) are competitive inhibitors where the equilibrium between inhibitor and enzyme is reached slowly,
ii) (kon is slow), possibly due to conformational changes that must occur in the enzyme or inhibitor
a) are often transition state analogues
b) are effective at concentrations similar to the enzyme concentration (subnanomolar KD values)
c) due to koff values being so low these types of inhibitors are “almost” irreversible.
Transition State Analogues
are competitive inhibitors which mimic the transition state of an enzyme catalyzed reaction. Enzyme catalysis occurs due to a lowering of the energy of the transition state, therefore, transition state binding is favored over substrate binding.
Multisubstrate Analogues
For a reaction involving two or more substrates, a competitive inhibitor or transition state analogue can be designed which contains structural characteristics resembling two or more of the substrates.
Irreversible enzyme inhibitors: drive the equilibrium between the unbound enzyme and inhibitor and enzyme inhibitor complex (E+I<--->E-I) all the way to the E-I-side with a covalent bond (˜100 kcal/mole), making the inhibition irreversible.
Affinity Labeling Agents
The reaction scheme below describes an active-site directed reagent with its target enzyme where KD is the dissociation constant and kinactivation is the rate of covalent bond formation.
The reaction scheme below shows the mechanism of action of a mechanism based enzyme inactivator, where KD is the dissociation complex, k2 is the rate of activation of the inhibitor once bound to the enzyme, k3 is the rate of dissociation of the activated inhibitor, P, from the enzyme (product can still be reactive) from the enzyme and k4 is the rate of covalent bond formation between the activated inhibitor and the enzyme.
Inactivation (covalent bond formation, k4) must occur prior to dissociation (k3) otherwise the now reactive inhibitor is released into the environment. The partition ratio, k3/k4: ratio of released product to inactivation should be minimized for efficient inactivation of the system and minimal undesirable side reactions.
A large partition ratio (favors dissociation) leads to nonspecific reactions.
Uncompetitive enzyme inhibitors: As a definition of uncompetitive inhibitor (an inhibitor which binds only to ES complexes) the following equilibria equation can be assumed:
The ES complex dissociates the substrate with a dissociation constant equal to Ks, whereas the ESI complex does not dissociate it (i.e has a Ks value equal to zero). The Km's of Michaelis-Menten type enzymes are expected to be reduced. Increasing substrate concentration leads to increasing ESI concentration (a complex incapable of progressing to reaction products) therefore the inhibition cannot be removed.
Preferred according to the present invention are competitive enzyme inhibitors.
Most preferred are competitive reversible enzyme inhibitors.
The terms “ki” or “KI” and “KD” are binding constants, which describe the binding of an inhibitor to and the subsequent release from an enzyme. Another measure is the “IC50” value, which reflects the inhibitor concentration, which at a given substrate concentration results in 50% enzyme activity.
The term “QC” as used herein comprises glutaminyl cyclase (QC) and QC-like enzymes. QC and QC-like enzymes have identical or similar enzymatic activity, further defined as QC activity. In this regard, QC-like enzymes can fundamentally differ in their molecular structure from QC. Examples of QC-like enzymes are the glutaminyl-peptide cyclotransferase-like proteins (QPCTLs) from human (GenBank NM—017659), mouse (GenBank BC058181), Macaca fascicularis (GenBank AB168255), Macaca mulatta (GenBank XM—001110995), Canis familiaris (GenBank XM—541552), Rattus norvegicus (GenBank XM—001066591), Mus musculus (GenBank BC058181) and Bos taurus (GenBank BT026254).
The term “QC activity” as used herein is defined as intramolecular cyclization of N-terminal glutamine residues into pyroglutamic acid (pGlu*) or of N-terminal L-homoglutamine or L-β-homoglutamine to a cyclic pyro-homoglutamine derivative under liberation of ammonia. See therefore schemes 1 and 2.
The term “EC” as used herein comprises the side activity of QC and QC-like enzymes as glutamate cyclase (EC), further defined as EC activity.
The term “EC activity” as used herein is defined as intramolecular cyclization of N-terminal glutamate residues into pyroglutamic acid (pGlu*) by QC. See therefore scheme 3.
The term “metal-dependent enzyme” as used herein is defined as enzyme(s), that require a bound metal ion in order to fulfill their catalytic function and/or require a bound metal ion in order to form the catalytically active structure.
Molecules that bind to enzymes and increase or decrease their activities are called “effectors”. Effectors can modify enzymatic activity because enzymes can assume both active and inactive conformations: activators are positive effectors and inhibitors are negative effectors. Effectors bind at regulatory sites, or allosteric sites (from the Greek for “another shape”), a term used to emphasize that the regulatory site is an element of the enzyme distinct from the catalytic site and to differentiate this form of regulation from competition between substrates and inhibitors at the catalytic site.
According to the individual embodiments of the present invention, either activators or inhibitors are preferred.
More preferred are inhibitors of QC. Most preferably, the QC-inhibitors are competitive inhibitors. Even preferred are QC-inhibitors, which bind to the active-site bound metal ion of QC.
Potency of QC Inhibition
In light of the correlation with QC inhibition, in preferred embodiments, the subject method and medical use utilize an agent with an IC50 for QC inhibition of 10 μM or less, more preferably of 1 μM or less, even more preferably of 0.1 μM or less or 0.01 μM or less, or most preferably 0.001 μM or less. Indeed, inhibitors with Ki values in the lower micromolar, preferably the nanomolar and even more preferably the picomolar range are contemplated. Thus, while the active agents are described herein, for convenience, as “QC inhibitors”, it will be understood that such nomenclature is not intending to limit the subject of the invention to a particular mechanism of action.
Molecular Weight of QC Inhibitors
In general, the QC inhibitors of the subject method or medical use will be small molecules, e.g., with molecular weights of 500 g/mole or less, 400 g/mole or less, preferably of 350 g/mole or less, and even more preferably of 300 g/mole or less and even of 250 g/mole or less.
The terms “ki” or “KI” and “KD” are binding constants, which describe the binding of an inhibitor to and the subsequent release from an enzyme. Another measure is the “IC50” value, which reflects the inhibitor concentration, which at a given substrate concentration results in 50% enzyme activity.
The term “DP IV-inhibitor” or “dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitor” is generally known to a person skilled in the art and means enzyme inhibitors, which inhibit the catalytic activity of DP IV or DP IV-like enzymes.
“DIV-activity” is defined as the catalytic activity of dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DP IV) and DP IV-like enzymes. These enzymes are post-proline (to a lesser extent post-alanine, post-serine or post-glycine) cleaving serine proteases found in various tissues of the body of a mammal including kidney, liver, and intestine, where they remove dipeptides from the N-terminus of biologically active peptides with a high specificity when proline or alanine form the residues that are adjacent to the N-terminal amino acid in their sequence.
The term “subject” as used herein, refers to an animal, preferably a mammal, most preferably a human, who has been the object of treatment, observation or experiment.
The term “therapeutically effective amount” as used herein, means that amount of active compound or pharmaceutical agent that elicits the biological or medicinal response in a tissue system, animal or human being sought by a researcher, veterinarian, medical doctor or other clinician, which includes alleviation of the symptoms of the disease or disorder being treated.
As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable” embraces both human and veterinary use: For example the term “pharmaceutically acceptable” embraces a veterinarily acceptable compound or a compound acceptable in human medicine and health care.
Another aspect of the present invention is the identification of new physiological substrates of QC. These were identified by performing cyclization experiments with mammalian peptides as described in example 5. Prior, human QC and papaya QC were isolated as described in example 1. The applied methods are described in example 2, and the peptide synthesis employed is outlined in example 6. The results of the study are shown in Table 1.
(*, determined qualitatively by MALDI-TOF experiments)
All analyses were performed in the optimal range of activity and stability of either human or plant QC, as demonstrated in example 4.
The amino acid sequences of physiological active peptides having an N-terminal glutamine residue and being therefore substrates for the QC enzyme are listed in Table 2:
Glutamate is found in positions 3, 11 and 22 of the amyloid β-peptide. Among them the mutation from glutamic acid (E) to glutamine (Q) in position 22 (corresponding to amyloid precursor protein APP 693, Swissprot P05067) has been described as the so called Dutch type cerebroarterial amyloidosis mutation.
The β-amyloid peptides with a pyroglutamic acid residue in position 3, 11 and/or 22 have been described to be more cytotoxic and hydrophobic than the amyloid β-peptides 1-40(42/43) (Saido T. C. 2000 Medical Hypotheses 54(3): 427-429).
The multiple N-terminal variations, e.g. Abeta(3-40), Abeta(3-42), Abeta(11-40) and Abeta (11-42) can be generated by the β-secretase enzyme β-site amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme (BACE) at different sites (Huse J. T. et al. 2002 J. Biol. Chem. 277 (18): 16278-16284), and/or by aminopeptidase or dipeptidylaminopeptidase processing from the full length peptides Abeta(1-40) and Abeta(1-42). In all cases, cyclization of the then N-terminal occurring glutamic acid residue is catalyzed by QC.
Transepithelial transducing cells, particularly the gastrin (G) cell, co-ordinate gastric acid secretion with the arrival of food in the stomach. Recent work showed that multiple active products are generated from the gastrin precursor, and that there are multiple control points in gastrin biosynthesis. Biosynthetic precursors and intermediates (progastrin and Gly-gastrins) are putative growth factors; their products, the amidated gastrins, regulate epithelial cell proliferation, the differentiation of acid-producing parietal cells and histamine-secreting enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells, and the expression of genes associated with histamine synthesis and storage in ECL cells, as well as acutely stimulating acid secretion. Gastrin also stimulates the production of members of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) family, which in turn inhibit parietal cell function but stimulate the growth of surface epithelial cells. Plasma gastrin concentrations are elevated in subjects with Helicobacter pylori, who are known to have increased risk of duodenal ulcer disease and gastric cancer (Dockray, G. J. 1999 J Physiol 15 315-324).
The peptide hormone gastrin, released from antral G cells, is known to stimulate the synthesis and release of histamine from ECL cells in the oxyntic mucosa via CCK-2 receptors. The mobilized histamine induces acid secretion by binding to the H(2) receptors located on parietal cells. Recent studies suggest that gastrin, in both its fully amidated and less processed forms (progastrin and glycine-extended gastrin), is also a growth factor for the gastrointestinal tract. It has been established that the major trophic effect of amidated gastrin is for the oxyntic mucosa of stomach, where it causes increased proliferation of gastric stem cells and ECL cells, resulting in increased parietal and ECL cell mass. On the other hand, the major trophic target of the less processed gastrin (e.g. glycine-extended gastrin) appears to be the colonic mucosa (Koh, T. J. and Chen, D. 2000 Regul Pept 9337-44).
Neurotensin (NT) is a neuropeptide implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia that specifically modulates neurotransmitter systems previously demonstrated to be misregulated in this disorder. Clinical studies in which cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) NT concentrations have been measured revealed a subset of schizophrenic patients with decreased CSF NT concentrations that are restored by effective antipsychotic drug treatment. Considerable evidence also exists concordant with the involvement of NT systems in the mechanism of action of antipsychotic drugs. The behavioral and biochemical effects of centrally administered NT remarkably resemble those of systemically administered antipsychotic drugs, and antipsychotic drugs increase NT neurotransmission. This concatenation of findings led to the hypothesis that NT functions as an endogenous antipsychotic. Moreover, typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs differentially alter NT neurotransmission in nigrostriatal and mesolimbic dopamine terminal regions, and these effects are predictive of side effect liability and efficacy, respectively (Binder, E. B. et al. 2001 Biol Psychiatry 50 856-872).
Fertilization promoting peptide (FPP), a tripeptide related to thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH), is found in seminal plasma. Recent evidence obtained in vitro and in vivo showed that FPP plays an important role in regulating sperm fertility. Specifically, FPP initially stimulates nonfertilizing (uncapacitated) spermatozoa to “switch on” and become fertile more quickly, but then arrests capacitation so that spermatozoa do not undergo spontaneous acrosome loss and therefore do not lose fertilizing potential. These responses are mimicked, and indeed augmented, by adenosine, known to regulate the adenylyl cyclase (AC)/cAMP signal transduction pathway. Both FPP and adenosine have been shown to stimulate cAMP production in uncapacitated cells but inhibit it in capacitated cells, with FPP receptors somehow interacting with adenosine receptors and G proteins to achieve regulation of AC. These events affect the tyrosine phosphorylation state of various proteins, some being important in the initial “switching on,” others possibly being involved in the acrosome reaction itself. Calcitonin and angiotensin II, also found in seminal plasma, have similar effects in vitro on uncapacitated spermatozoa and can augment responses to FPP. These molecules have similar effects in vivo, affecting fertility by stimulating and then maintaining fertilizing potential. Either reductions in the availability of FPP, adenosine, calcitonin, and angiotensin II or defects in their receptors contribute to male infertility (Fraser, L. R. and Adeoya-Osiguwa, S. A. 2001 Vitam Horm 63, 1-28).
CCL2 (MCP-1), CCL7, CCL8, CCL16, CCL18 and fractalkine play an important role in pathophysiological conditions, such as suppression of proliferation of myeloid progenitor cells, neoplasia, inflammatory host responses, cancer, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, vasculitis, humoral and cell-mediated immunity responses, leukocyte adhesion and migration processes at the endothelium, inflammatory bowel disease, restenosis, pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary hypertension, liver fibrosis, liver cirrhosis, nephrosclerosis, ventricular remodeling, heart failure, arteriopathy after organ transplantations and failure of vein grafts.
A number of studies have underlined in particular the crucial role of MCP-1 for the development of atherosclerosis (Gu, L., et al., (1998) Mol. Cell 2, 275-281; Gosling, J., et al., (1999) J Clin. Invest 103, 773-778); rheumatoid arthritis (Gong, J. H., et al., (1997) J Exp. Med 186, 131-137; Ogata, H., et al., (1997) J Pathol. 182, 106-114); pancreatitis (Bhatia, M., et al., (2005) Am. J Physiol Gastrointest. Liver Physiol 288, G1259-G1265); Alzheimer's disease (Yamamoto, M., et al., (2005) Am. J Pathol. 166, 1475-1485); lung fibrosis (Inoshima, I., et al., (2004) Am. J Physiol Lung Cell Mol. Physiol 286, L1038-L1044); renal fibrosis (Wada, T., et al., (2004) J Am. Soc. Nephrol. 15, 940-948), and graft rejection (Saiura, A., et al., (2004) Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 24, 1886-1890). Furthermore, MCP-1 might also play a role in gestosis (Katabuchi, H., et al., (2003) Med Electron Microsc. 36, 253-262), as a paracrine factor in tumor development (Ohta, M., et al., (2003) Int. J Oncol. 22, 773-778; Li, S., et al., (2005) J Exp. Med 202, 617-624), neuropathic pain (White, F. A., et al., (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A) and AIDS (Park, I. W., Wang, J. F., and Groopman, J. E. (2001) Blood 97, 352-358; Coll, B., et al., (2006) Cytokine 34, 51-55).
MCP-1 levels are increased in CSF of AD patients and patients showing mild cognitive impairment (MCI) (Galimberti, D., et al., (2006) Arch. Neurol. 63, 538-543). Furthermore, MCP-1 shows an increased level in serum of patients with MCI and early AD (Clerici, F., et al., (2006) Neurobiol. Aging 27, 1763-1768).
Several cytotoxic T lymphocyte peptide-based vaccines against hepatitis B, human immunodeficiency virus and melanoma were recently studied in clinical trials. One interesting melanoma vaccine candidate alone or in combination with other tumor antigens, is the decapeptide ELA. This peptide is a Melan-A/MART-1 antigen immunodominant peptide analog, with an N-terminal glutamic acid. It has been reported that the amino group and gamma-carboxylic group of glutamic acids, as well as the amino group and gamma-carboxamide group of glutamines, condense easily to form pyroglutamic derivatives. To overcome this stability problem, several peptides of pharmaceutical interest have been developed with a pyroglutamic acid instead of N-terminal glutamine or glutamic acid, without loss of pharmacological properties. Unfortunately compared with ELA, the pyroglutamic acid derivative (PyrELA) and also the N-terminal acetyl-capped derivative (AcELA) failed to elicit cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) activity. Despite the apparent minor modifications introduced in PyrELA and AcELA, these two derivatives probably have lower affinity than ELA for the specific class I major histocompatibility complex. Consequently, in order to conserve full activity of ELA, the formation of PyrELA must be avoided (Beck A. et al. 2001, J Pept Res 57(6):528-38.).
Orexin A is a neuropeptide that plays a significant role in the regulation of food intake and sleep-wakefulness, possibly by coordinating the complex behavioral and physiologic responses of these complementary homeostatic functions. It plays also a role in the homeostatic regulation of energy metabolism, autonomic function, hormonal balance and the regulation of body fluids.
Recently, increased levels of the pentapeptide QYNAD were identified in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients suffering from multiple sclerosis or Guillain-Barré syndrome compared to healthy individuals (Brinkmeier H. et al. 2000, Nature Medicine 6, 808-811). There is a big controversy in the literature about the mechanism of action of the pentapeptide Gln-Tyr-Asn-Ala-Asp (QYNAD), especially its efficacy to interact with and block sodium channels resulting in the promotion of axonal dysfunction, which are involved in inflammatory autoimmune diseases of the central nervous system. But recently, it could be demonstrated that not QYNAD, but its cyclized, pyroglutamated form, pEYNAD, is the active form, which blocks sodium channels resulting in the promotion of axonal dysfunction. Sodium channels are expressed at high density in myelinated axons and play an obligatory role in conducting action potentials along axons within the mammalian brain and spinal cord. Therefore, it is speculated that they are involved in several aspects of the pathophysiology of inflammatory autoimmune diseases, especially multiple sclerosis, the Guillain-Barré syndrome and chronic inflammatory demyelinizing polyradiculoneuropathy.
Furthermore, QYNAD is a substrate of the enzyme glutaminyl cyclase (QC, EC 2.3.2.5), which is also present in the brain of mammals, especially in human brain. Glutaminyl cyclase catalyzes effectively the formation of pEYNAD from its precursor QYNAD.
Accordingly, the present invention provides the use of QC-inhibitors for the preparation of a medicament for the prevention or alleviation or treatment of a disease selected from the group consisting of mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer's disease, Familial British Dementia, Familial Danish Dementia, neurodegeneration in Down Syndrome, Huntington's disease, Kennedy's disease, ulcer disease, duodenal cancer with or w/o Heliobacter pylori infections, colorectal cancer, Zolliger-Ellison syndrome, gastric cancer with or without Helicobacter pylori infections, pathogenic psychotic conditions, schizophrenia, infertility, neoplasia, inflammatory host responses, cancer, malign metastasis, melanoma, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, pancreatitis, restenosis, impaired humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, leukocyte adhesion and migration processes in the endothelium, impaired food intake, impaired sleep-wakefulness, impaired homeostatic regulation of energy metabolism, impaired autonomic function, impaired hormonal balance or impaired regulation of body fluids, multiple sclerosis, the Guillain-Barré syndrome and chronic inflammatory demyelinizing polyradiculoneuropathy.
Furthermore, by administration of a compound according to the present invention to a mammal it can be possible to stimulate the proliferation of myeloid progenitor cells.
In addition, the administration of a QC inhibitor according to the present invention can lead to suppression of male fertility.
In a preferred embodiment, the present invention provides the use of inhibitors of QC (EC) activity in combination with other agents, especially for the treatment of neuronal diseases, artherosclerosis and multiple sclerosis.
The present invention also provides a method of treatment of the aforementioned diseases comprising the administration of a therapeutically active amount of at least one QC-inhibitor to a mammal, preferably a human.
Most preferably, said method and corresponding uses are for the treatment of a disease selected from the group consisting of mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer's disease, Familial British Dementia, Familial Danish Dementia, neurodegeneration in Down Syndrome, Parkinson disease and Chorea Huntington, comprising the administration of a therapeutically active amount of at least one QC-inhibitor to a mammal, preferably a human.
Even preferably, the present invention provides a method of treatment and corresponding uses for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, pancreatitis and restenosis.
In a further embodiment, the present invention provides a general way to reduce or inhibit the enzymatic activity of QC. Examples of inhibitory compounds are also provided.
Inhibition of a mammalian QC was only detected initially for 1,10-phenanthroline and reduced 6-methylpterin (Busby, W. H. J. et al. 1987 J Biol Chem 262, 8532-8536). EDTA did not inhibit QC, thus it was concluded that QC is not a metal-dependent enzyme (Busby, W. H. J. et al. 1987 J Biol Chem 262, 8532-8536, Bateman, R. C. J. et al. 2001 Biochemistry 40, 11246-11250, Booth, R. E. et al. 2004 BMC Biology 2). In the present invention, however, it is shown that human QC and other animal QCs are metal-dependent enzymes, as revealed by the inhibition characteristics of QC by 1,10-phenanthroline, dipicolinic acid, 8-hydroxy-quinoline and other chelators (
In the present invention many imidazole derivatives were analyzed concerning their ability to inhibit the human QC as a member of the highly conserved mammalian QC's (for details see example 2).
Examples of QC-Inhibitors
QC-inhibitors, which are suitable for uses and methods according to the present invention are disclosed in WO 2005/075436, which is incorporated herein in its entirety with regard to the structure, synthesis and methods of use of the QC-inhibitors.
In particular:
A suitable compound, that of formula 1* shown below, is a inhibitor of QC:
In a further embodiment, the inhibitors of QC (EC) are those of formula 1a,
wherein R is defined in examples 1 to 53.
Further suitable inhibitors of QC (EC) are those of formula 1b,
wherein R1 and R2 are defined in examples 54 to 95.
Further suitable inhibitors of QC (EC) are those of formula 1c,
wherein R3 is defined in examples 96 to 102.
Further suitable inhibitors of QC (EC) are those of formula 1d,
wherein the position on the ring is defined in examples 103 to 105.
Further suitable inhibitors of QC (EC) are those of formula 1e,
wherein R4 and R5 are defined in examples 106 to 109.
Further suitable inhibitors of QC (EC) are those of formula 1f,
wherein R6 is defined in examples 110 to 112.
Further suitable inhibitors of QC (EC) are those of formula 1g,
wherein R7, R8 and R9 are defined in examples 113 to 132.
Further suitable inhibitors of QC (EC) are those of formula 1h,
wherein n is defined in examples 133 to 135.
Further suitable inhibitors of QC (EC) are those of formula 1i,
wherein m is defined in examples 136 and 137.
Further suitable inhibitors of QC (EC) are those of formula 138 to 141.
Surprisingly, during characterization of the enzymatic activity it was discovered that besides an N-terminal glutaminyl residue, N-terminal β-homo-glutaminyl residues also fulfill properties as substrates of QCs from plants and mammals. The N-terminal β-homo-glutaminyl residue was converted into a five-membered lactam ring by catalysis of human and papaya QC, respectively. The results are described in example 5. The applied method is illustrated in example 2 and the peptide synthesis was performed as described in example 6.
Another preferred embodiment of the present invention comprises screening methods for effectors of QC.
A preferred screening method for identifying effectors modifying the activity of QC from a group of compounds comprises the steps of:
Another preferred screening method relates to a method for the identification and selection of effectors which interact directly or indirectly with the active-site bound metal ion of QC and comprises the following steps:
Preferred for the use in the above-described screening methods are mammalian QC, mammalian QC-like enzymes or Papaya QC. Especially preferred is mammalian QC, since the effectors identified by these screening methods shall be used for the treatment of diseases in mammals, especially in humans. Most preferred are human QC and/or human isoQC.
The agents selected by the above-described screening methods can work by decreasing the conversion of at least one substrate of QC (negative effectors, inhibitors), or by increasing the conversion of at least one substrate of QC (positive effectors, activators).
The compounds of the present invention can be converted into acid addition salts, especially pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts.
The salts of the compounds of the invention may be in the form of inorganic or organic salts.
The compounds of the present invention can be converted into and used as acid addition salts, especially pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts. The pharmaceutically acceptable salt generally takes a form in which a basic side chain is protonated with an inorganic or organic acid. Representative organic or inorganic acids include hydrochloric, hydrobromic, perchloric, sulfuric, nitric, phosphoric, acetic, propionic, glycolic, lactic, succinic, maleic, fumaric, malic, tartaric, citric, benzoic, mandelic, methanesulfonic, hydroxyethanesulfonic, benzenesulfonic, oxalic, pamoic, 2-naphthalenesulfonic, p-toulenesulfonic, cyclohexanesulfamic, salicylic, saccharinic or trifluoroacetic acid. All pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salt forms of the compounds of the present invention are intended to be embraced by the scope of this invention.
In view of the close relationship between the free compounds and the compounds in the form of their salts, whenever a compound is referred to in this context, a corresponding salt is also intended, provided such is possible or appropriate under the circumstances.
Where the compounds according to this invention have at least one chiral center, they may accordingly exist as enantiomers. Where the compounds possess two or more chiral centers, they may additionally exist as diastereomers. It is to be understood that all such isomers and mixtures thereof are encompassed within the scope of the present invention. Furthermore, some of the crystalline forms of the compounds may exist as polymorphs and as such are intended to be included in the present invention. In addition, some of the compounds may form solvates with water (i.e. hydrates) or common organic solvents, and such solvates are also intended to be encompassed within the scope of this invention.
The compounds, including their salts, can also be obtained in the form of their hydrates, or include other solvents used for their crystallization.
In a further embodiment, the present invention provides a method of preventing or treating a condition mediated by modulation of the QC enzyme activity in a subject in need thereof which comprises administering any of the compounds of the present invention or pharmaceutical compositions thereof in a quantity and dosing regimen therapeutically effective to treat the condition. Additionally, the present invention includes the use of the compounds of this invention, and their corresponding pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salt forms, for the preparation of a medicament for the prevention or treatment of a condition mediated by modulation of the QC activity in a subject. The compound may be administered to a patient by any conventional route of administration, including, but not limited to, intravenous, oral, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intradermal, parenteral and combinations thereof.
In a further preferred form of implementation, the invention relates to pharmaceutical compositions, that is to say, medicaments, that contain at least one compound of the invention or salts thereof, optionally in combination with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers and/or solvents.
The pharmaceutical compositions may, for example, be in the form of parenteral or enteral formulations and contain appropriate carriers, or they may be in the form of oral formulations that may contain appropriate carriers suitable for oral administration. Preferably, they are in the form of oral formulations.
The effectors of QC activity administered according to the invention may be employed in pharmaceutically administrable formulations or formulation complexes as inhibitors or in combination with inhibitors, substrates, pseudosubstrates, inhibitors of QC expression, binding proteins or antibodies of those enzyme proteins that reduce the QC protein concentration in mammals. The compounds of the invention make it possible to adjust treatment individually to patients and diseases, it being possible, in particular, to avoid individual intolerances, allergies and side-effects.
The compounds also exhibit differing degrees of activity as a function of time. The doctor providing treatment is thereby given the opportunity to respond differently to the individual situation of patients: he is able to adjust precisely, on the one hand, the speed of the onset of action and, on the other hand, the duration of action and especially the intensity of action.
A preferred treatment method according to the invention represents a new approach for the prevention or treatment of a condition mediated by modulation of the QC enzyme activity in mammals. It is advantageously simple, susceptible of commercial application and suitable for use, especially in the treatment of diseases that are based on unbalanced concentration of physiological active QC substrates, e.g. listed in Tables 1 and 2, in mammals and especially in human medicine.
The compounds may be advantageously administered, for example, in the form of pharmaceutical preparations that contain the active ingredient in combination with customary additives like diluents, excipients and/or carriers known from the prior art. For example, they can be administered parenterally (for example i.v. in physiological saline solution) or enterally (for example orally, formulated with customary carriers).
Depending upon their endogenous stability and their bioavailability, one or more doses of the compounds can be given per day in order to achieve the desired normalisation of the blood glucose values. For example, such a dosage range in humans may be in the range of from about 0.01 mg to 250.0 mg per day, preferably in the range of from about 0.01 to 100 mg of compound per kilogram of body weight.
By administering effectors of QC activity to a mammal it could be possible to prevent or alleviate or treat conditions selected from
In particular, the present invention pertains to the use of effectors of QC activity for the preparation of a medicament for the prevention, alleviation and/or treatment of Alzheimer's disease in a human subject.
Further, by administration of effectors of QC activity to a mammal it can be possible to stimulate gastrointestinal tract cell proliferation, preferably proliferation of gastric mucosal cells, epithelial cells, acute acid secretion and the differentiation of acid producing parietal cells and histamine-secreting enterochromaffin-like cells.
Furthermore, by administration of effectors of QC activity to a mammal it can be possible to suppress the proliferation of myeloid progenitor cells.
In addition, administration of QC inhibitors can lead to suppression of male fertility.
The compounds used according to the invention can accordingly be converted in a manner known per se into conventional formulations, such as, for example, tablets, capsules, dragées, pills, suppositories, granules, aerosols, syrups, liquid, solid and cream-like emulsions and suspensions and solutions, using inert, non-toxic, pharmaceutically suitable carriers and additives or solvents. In each of those formulations, the therapeutically effective compounds are preferably present in a concentration of approximately from 0.1 to 80% by weight, more preferably from 1 to 50% by weight, of the total mixture, that is to say, in amounts sufficient for the mentioned dosage latitude to be obtained.
The substances can be used as medicaments in the form of dragées, capsules, bitable capsules, tablets, drops, syrups or also as suppositories or as nasal sprays.
The formulations may be advantageously prepared, for example, by extending the active ingredient with solvents and/or carriers, optionally with the use of emulsifiers and/or dispersants, it being possible, for example, in the case where water is used as diluent, for organic solvents to be optionally used as auxiliary solvents.
Examples of excipients useful in connection with the present invention include: water, non-toxic organic solvents, such as paraffins (for example natural oil fractions), vegetable oils (for example rapeseed oil, groundnut oil, sesame oil), alcohols (for example ethyl alcohol, glycerol), glycols (for example propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol); solid carriers, such as, for example, natural powdered minerals (for example highly disperse silica, silicates), sugars (for example raw sugar, lactose and dextrose); emulsifiers, such as non-ionic and anionic emulsifiers (for example polyoxyethylene fatty acid esters, polyoxyethylene fatty alcohol ethers, alkylsulphonates and arylsulphonates), dispersants (for example lignin, sulphite liquors, methylcellulose, starch and polyvinylpyrrolidone) and lubricants (for example magnesium stearate, talcum, stearic acid and sodium lauryl sulphate) and optionally flavourings.
Administration may be carried out in the usual manner, preferably enterally or parenterally, especially orally. In the case of enteral administration, tablets may contain in addition to the mentioned carriers further additives such as sodium citrate, calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate, together with various additives, such as starch, preferably potato starch, gelatin and the like. Furthermore, lubricants, such as magnesium stearate, sodium lauryl sulphate and talcum, can be used concomitantly for tabletting. In the case of aqueous suspensions and/or elixirs intended for oral administration, various taste correctives or colourings can be added to the active ingredients in addition to the above-mentioned excipients.
In the case of parenteral administration, solutions of the active ingredients using suitable liquid carriers can be employed. In general, it has been found advantageous to administer, in the case of intravenous administration, amounts of approximately from 0.01 to 2.0 mg/kg, preferably approximately from 0.01 to 1.0 mg/kg, of body weight per day to obtain effective results and, in the case of enteral administration, the dosage is approximately from 0.01 to 2 mg/kg, preferably approximately from 0.01 to 1 mg/kg, of body weight per day.
It may nevertheless be necessary in some cases to deviate from the stated amounts, depending upon the body weight of the experimental animal or the patient or upon the type of administration route, but also on the basis of the species of animal and its individual response to the medicament or the interval at which administration is carried out. Accordingly, it may be sufficient in some cases to use less than the above-mentioned minimum amount, while, in other cases, the mentioned upper limit will have to be exceeded. In cases where relatively large amounts are being administered, it may be advisable to divide those amounts into several single doses over the day. For administration in human medicine, the same dosage latitude is provided. The above remarks apply analogously in that case.
Examples of Pharmaceutical Formulations
1. Capsules containing 100 mg of a compound of the invention per capsule:
For approximately 10,000 capsules a solution of the following composition is prepared:
The solution is introduced into soft gelatin capsules in a manner known per se. The capsules are suitable for chewing or swallowing.
2. Tablets or coated tables or dragées containing 100 mg of a compound of the invention:
The following amounts refer to the preparation of 100,000 tablets:
The above constituents are mixed and then provided with a solution prepared from
and granulated in a manner known per se by grating the moist mass and, after the addition of 0.2 kg of magnesium stearate, drying it. The finished tablet mixture of 30.0 kg is processed to form convex tablets weighing 300 mg. Ideally, the tablets can be coated or sugar-coated in a manner known per se.
The pharmaceutical compositions defined throughout the specification advantageously contain a combination of at least one effector of QC activity, preferably a QC-inhibitor, and at least one other agent, which is useful for the treatment of the aforementioned conditions. Most preferred are pharmaceutical compositions, which are useful for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and neurodegeneration Down syndrome.
In the examples below, the following abbreviations are used:
Host Strains and Media
Pichia pastoris strain X33 (AOX1, AOX2), used for the expression of human QC was grown, transformed and analyzed according to the manufacturer's instructions (Invitrogen). The media required for P. pastoris, i.e. buffered glycerol (BMGY) complex or methanol (BMMY) complex medium, and the fermentation basal salts medium were prepared according to the manufacturer's recommendations.
Molecular Cloning of Plasmid Vectors Encoding the Human QC
All cloning procedures were done applying standard molecular biology techniques. For expression in yeast, the vector pPICZαB (Invitrogen) was used. The pQE-31 vector (Qiagen) was used to express the human QC in E. coli. The cDNA of the mature QC starting with codon 38 was fused in frame with the plasmid encoded 6× histidine tag. After amplification utilizing the primers pQCyc-1 and pQCyc-2 (Table 1) and subcloning, the fragment was inserted into the expression vector employing the restriction sites of SphI and HindIII.
Transformation of P. pastoris and Mini-Scale Expression
Plasmid DNA was amplified in E. coli JM109 and purified according to the recommendations of the manufacturer (Qiagen). In the expression plasmid used, pPICZαB, three restriction sites are provided for linearization. Since SacI and BstXI cut within the QC cDNA, PmeI was chosen for linearization. 20-30 μg plasmid DNA was linearized with PmeI, precipitated by ethanol, and dissolved in sterile, deionized water. 10 μg of the DNA was then applied for transformation of competent P. pastoris cells by electroporation according to the manufacturers instructions (BioRad). Selection was done on plates containing 150 μg/ml Zeocin. One transformation using the linearized plasmid yielded several hundred transformants.
In order to test the recombinant yeast clones for QC expression, recombinants were grown for 24 h in 10 ml conical tubes containing 2 ml BMGY. Afterwards, the yeast was centrifuged and resuspended in 2 ml BMMY containing 0.5% methanol. This concentration was maintained by addition of methanol every 24 h up to 72 h. Subsequently, QC activity in the supernatant was determined. The presence of the fusion protein was confirmed by western blot analysis using an antibody directed against the 6× histidine tag (Qiagen). Clones that displayed the highest QC activity were chosen for further experiments and fermentation.
Large-Scale Expression in a Fermenter
Expression of the QC was performed in a 5 l reactor (Biostat B. B. Braun biotech), essentially as described in the “Pichia fermentation process guidelines” (Invitrogen). Briefly, the cells were grown in the fermentation basal salts medium supplemented with trace salts, and with glycerol as the sole carbon source (pH 5.5). During an initial batch phase for about 24 h and a subsequent fed-batch phase for about 5 h, cell mass was accumulated. Once a cell wet weight of 200 g/l was achieved, induction of QC expression was performed using methanol applying a three-step feeding profile for an entire fermentation time of approximately 60 h. Subsequently, cells were removed from the QC-containing supernatant by centrifugation at 6000×g, 4° C. for 15 min. The pH was adjusted to 6.8 by addition of NaOH, and the resultant turbid solution was centrifuged again at 37000×g, 4° C. for 40 min. In cases of continued turbidity, an additional filtration step was applied using a cellulose membrane (pore width 0.45 μm).
Purification of 6× Histidine Tagged QC Expressed in P. pastoris
The His-tagged QC was first purified by immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC). In a typical purification, 1000 ml of culture supernatant were applied to a Ni2+-loaded Chelating Sepharose FF column (1.6×20 cm, Pharmacia), that was equilibrated with 50 mM phosphate buffer, pH 6.8, containing 750 mM NaCl, at a flow rate of 5 ml/min. After washing with 10 column volumes of equilibration buffer and 5 column volumes of equilibration buffer containing 5 mM histidine, the bound protein was eluted by a shift to 50 mM phosphate buffer, pH 6.8, containing 150 mM NaCl and 100 mM histidine. The resulting eluate was dialyzed against 20 mM Bis-Tris/HCl, pH 6.8, at 4° C. overnight. Subsequently, the QC was further purified by anion exchange chromatography on a Mono Q6 column (BioRad), equilibrated with dialysis buffer. The QC-containing fraction was loaded onto the column using a flow rate of 4 ml/min. The column was then washed with equilibration buffer containing 100 mM NaCl. The elution was performed by two gradients resulting in equilibration buffer containing 240 mM and 360 mM NaCl in 30 or 5 column volumes, respectively. Fractions of 6 ml were collected and the purity was analyzed by SDS-PAGE. Fractions containing homogenous QC were pooled and concentrated by ultrafiltration. For long-term storage (−20° C.), glycerol was added to a final concentration of 50%. Protein was quantified according to the methods of Bradford or Gill and von Hippel (Bradford, M. M. 1976 Anal Biochem 72, 248-254; Gill, S. C. and von Hippel, P. H. 1989 Anal Biochem 182, 319-326.).
Expression and Purification of QC in E. coli
The construct encoding the QC was transformed into M15 cells (Qiagen) and grown on selective LB agar plates at 37° C. Protein expression was carried out in LB medium containing 1% glucose and 1% ethanol at room temperature. When the culture reached an OD600 of approximately 0.8, expression was induced with 0.1 mM IPTG overnight. After one cycle of freezing and thawing, cells were lysed at 4° C. by addition of 2.5 mg/ml lysozyme in 50 mM phosphate buffer, pH 8.0, containing 300 mM NaCl and 2 mM histidine for approximately 30 min. The solution was clarified by centrifugation at 37000×g, 4° C. for 30 min, followed by a filtration applying a glass frit (DNA separation) and two additional filtration steps applying cellulose filters for crude and fine precipitates. The supernatant (approx. 500 ml) was applied onto a Ni2+-affinity column (1.6×20 cm) at a flow rate of 1 ml/min. Elution of QC was carried out with 50 mM phosphate buffer containing 150 mM NaCl and 100 mM histidine. The QC-containing fraction was concentrated by ultrafiltration.
Purification of QC from Papaya Latex
QC from papaya latex was prepared using the BioCAD 700E (Perseptive Biosystems, Wiesbaden, Germany) with a modified version of a previously reported method (Zerhouni, S. et al. 1989 Biochim Biophys Acta 138, 275-290). 50 g latex was dissolved in water and centrifugated as described therein. Inactivation of proteases was performed with S-methyl methanethiosulfonate, and the resultant crude extract was dialyzed. After dialysis, the entire supernatant was loaded onto a (2152.5 cm i.d.) SP Sepharose Fast Flow column, equilibrated with 100 mM sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.0 (flow rate 3 ml/min). Elution was performed in three steps by increasing sodium acetate buffer concentration at a flow rate of 2 ml/min. The first step was a linear gradient from 0.1 to 0.5 M acetate buffer in 0.5 column volumes. The second step was a linear increase in buffer concentration from 0.5 to 0.68 M in four column volumes. During the last elution step, one column volume of 0.85 M buffer was applied. Fractions (6 ml) containing the highest enzymatic activity were pooled. Concentration and buffer changes to 0.02 M Tris/HCl, pH 8.0 were performed via ultrafiltration (Amicon; molecular mass cut-off of the membrane 10 kDa).
Ammonium sulfate was added to the concentrated papaya enzyme, obtained from the ion exchange chromatography step to a final concentration of 2 M. This solution was applied onto a (2152.5 cm i.d.) Butyl Sepharose 4 Fast Flow column (flow rate 1.3 ml/min), equilibrated with 2 M ammonium sulfate, 0.02 M Tris/HCl, pH 8.0. Elution was performed in three steps with decreasing concentrations of ammonium sulfate. During the first step a linear gradient from 2 to 0.6 M ammonium sulfate, 0.02 M Tris/HCl, pH 8.0 was applied for 0.5 column volumes at a flow rate of 1.3 ml/min. The second step was a linear gradient from 0.6 to 0 M ammonium sulfate, 0.02 M Tris/HCl, pH 8.0, in 5 column volumes at a flow rate of 1.5 ml/min. The last elution step was carried out by applying 0.02 M Tris/HCl at pH 8.0 for 2 column volumes at a flow rate of 1.5 ml/min. All fractions containing QC activity were pooled and concentrated by ultrafiltration. The resultant homogenous QC was stored at −70° C. Final protein concentrations were determined using the method of Bradford, compared to a standard curve obtained with bovine serum albumin.
Fluorometric Assays
All measurements were performed with a BioAssay Reader HTS-7000Plus for microplates (Perkin Elmer) at 30° C. QC activity was evaluated fluorometrically using H-Gln-βNA. The samples consisted of 0.2 mM fluorogenic substrate, 0.25 U pyroglutamyl aminopeptidase (Unizyme, Hørsholm, Denmark) in 0.2 M Tris/HCl, pH 8.0 containing 20 mM EDTA and an appropriately diluted aliquot of QC in a final volume of 250 μl. Excitation/emission wavelengths were 320/410 nm. The assay reactions were initiated by addition of glutaminyl cyclase. QC activity was determined from a standard curve of β-naphthylamine under assay conditions. One unit is defined as the amount of QC catalyzing the formation of 1 μmol pGlu-βNA from H-Gln-βNA per minute under the described conditions.
In a second fluorometric assay, QC was activity was determined using H-Gln-AMC as substrate. Reactions were carried out at 30° C. utilizing the NOVOStar reader for microplates (BMG labtechnologies). The samples consisted of varying concentrations of the fluorogenic substrate, 0.1 U pyroglutamyl aminopeptidase (Qiagen) in 0.05 M Tris/HCl, pH 8.0 containing 5 mM EDTA and an appropriately diluted aliquot of QC in a final volume of 250 μl. Excitation/emission wavelengths were 380/460 nm. The assay reactions were initiated by addition of glutaminyl cyclase. QC activity was determined from a standard curve of 7-amino-4-methylcoumarin under assay conditions. The kinetic data were evaluated using GraFit software.
Spectrophotometric Assay of QC
This novel assay was used to determine the kinetic parameters for most of the QC substrates. QC activity was analyzed spectrophotometrically using a continuous method, which was derived by adapting a previous discontinuous assay (Bateman, R. C. J. 1989 J Neurosci Methods 30, 23-28) utilizing glutamate dehydrogenase as auxiliary enzyme. Samples consisted of the respective QC substrate, 0.3 mM NADH, 14 mM α-Ketoglutaric acid and 30 U/ml glutamate dehydrogenase in a final volume of 250 μl. Reactions were started by addition of QC and persued by monitoring of the decrease in absorbance at 340 nm for 8-15 min. Typical time courses of product formation are presented in
The initial velocities were evaluated and the enzymatic activity was determined from a standard curve of ammonia under assay conditions. All samples were measured at 30° C., using either the SPECTRAFluor Plus or the Sunrise (both from TECAN) reader for microplates. Kinetic data was evaluated using GraFit software.
Inhibitor Assay
For inhibitor testing, the sample composition was the same as described above, except of the putative inhibitory compound added. For a rapid test of QC-inhibition, samples contained 4 mM of the respective inhibitor and a substrate concentration at 1 KM. For detailed investigations of the inhibition and determination of Ki-values, influence of the inhibitor on the auxiliary enzymes was investigated first. In every case, there was no influence on either enzyme detected, thus enabling the reliable determination of the QC inhibition. The inhibitory constant was evaluated by fitting the set of progress curves to the general equation for competitive inhibition using GraFit software.
Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry was carried out using the Hewlett-Packard G2025 LD-TOF System with a linear time of flight analyzer. The instrument was equipped with a 337 nm nitrogen laser, a potential acceleration source (5 kV) and a 1.0 m flight tube. Detector operation was in the positive-ion mode and signals were recorded and filtered using LeCroy 9350M digital storage oscilloscope linked to a personal computer. Samples (5 μl) were mixed with equal volumes of the matrix solution. For matrix solution we used DHAP/DAHC, prepared by solving 30 mg 2′,6′-dihydroxyacetophenone (Aldrich) and 44 mg diammonium hydrogen citrate (Fluka) in 1 ml acetonitrile/0.1% TFA in water (1/1, v/v). A small volume (≈1 μl) of the matrix-analyte-mixture was transferred to a probe tip and immediately evaporated in a vacuum chamber (Hewlett-Packard G2024A sample prep accessory) to ensure rapid and homogeneous sample crystallization.
For long-term testing of Glu1-cyclization, Aβ-derived peptides were incubated in 100 μl 0.1 M sodium acetate buffer, pH 5.2 or 0.1 M Bis-Tris buffer, pH 6.5 at 30° C. Peptides were applied in 0.5 mM [Aβ3-11a] or 0.15 mM [Aβ3-21a] concentrations, and 0.2 U Q was added all 24 hours. In case of Aβ3-21a, the assays contained 1% DMSO. At different times, samples were removed from the assay tube, peptides extracted using ZipTips (Millipore) according to the manufacturer's recommendations, mixed with matrix solution (1:1 v/v) and subsequently the mass spectra recorded. Negative controls did either contain no QC or heat deactivated enzyme. For the inhibitor studies the sample composition was the same as described above, with exception of the inhibitory compound added (5 mM benzimidazole or 2 mM 1,10-phenanthroline).
The pH-dependence of catalysis of human and papaya QC was investigated under first-order rate conditions, thus reflecting the impact of the proton concentration on the specificity constant kcat/KM. For this purpose, the coupled enzymatic assay using pyroglutamyl aminopeptidase as auxiliary enzyme and Gln-βNA as substrate was used. Pyroglutamyl aminopeptidase was shown to be active and stable between pH 5.5-8.5 (Tsuru, D. et al. 1978 J Biochem (Tokyo) 84, 467-476). Hence, the assay enabled the study of QC catalysis in this pH-region. The rate profiles obtained were fit to classical bell shaped curves, as shown in
The reduction of the activity of human QC at basic pH-values was obviously due to dissociation of a group with a pKa of approximately 8.5. In case of papaya QC, there was no excessive data point collection in the basic pH-range possible to enable a reliable determination of the second pKa value. This is supported by fitting of the data to a single dissociation model, resulting in an almost identical pKa-value (pKa 7.13±0.03) compared to fitting the data to a double dissociation model. This indicates that both pKa-values are fairly separated.
pH Stability
The stability of the glutaminyl cyclases was investigated by incubating the plant and animal enzymes at 30° C. for 30 min at different pH values between pH 4-10. Afterwards, QC activity was determined under standard conditions. The results are shown in
The QC from papaya latex was stable in the pH-range studied, without an obvious trend for instability in the acidic or basic range. In contrast, human QC only showed a comparable stability in the pH-range between 7 and 8.5, exhibiting a remarkable instability at pH values above pH 8.5 and below pH 6. Thus, the region around pH 8 seems to be optimal for activity and stability of plant and human QC and a suitable pH-value for performing a substrate specificity comparison of the QCs.
Spectrophotometric Assay
The continuous spectrophotometric assay was performed as described in example 2. Accordingly, QC activity is reflected by a decrease in absorbance at 340 nm caused by the ammonia release and subsequent consumption of NADH/H+ due to formation of glutamate from α-ketoglutaric acid. As shown in
Di-, Tri- and Dipeptide-Surrogates
Utilizing the novel continuous assay described above, about 30 compounds were tested as potential substrates of QC from C. papaya and human. The results are displayed in Table 5. By comparison of the specificities it was shown, that nearly all of the short peptide substrates are more efficiently converted by papaya QC compared to the human enzyme. Interestingly, for both enzymes substrates with large hydrophobic residues in the second position are the most potent ones, as shown by the specificities of H-Gln-Tyr-Ala-OH, H-Gln-Phe-Ala-NH2 and H-Gln-Trp-Ala-NH2 compared to those of other tripeptides or by the reactivities of the chromophoric substrates H-Gln-AMC, H-Gln-βNA and H-Gln-Tyr-OH in comparison to dipeptide substrates. For papaya QC, this finding is in agreement with earlier results showing that the specificity is in correlation with the size of the second amino acid residue (Gololobov, M. Y. et al. 1996 Biol Chem Hoppe Seyler 377, 395-398). The only striking difference in specificity of the plant and animal QC was observed in case of H-Gln-OtBu. Whereas the ester was converted by papaya QC with similar specificity compared to dipeptide substrates, it was converted about one order of magnitude slower by human QC.
Oligopeptides
Besides several dipeptides and tripeptides, a number of oligopeptides was tested upon conversion by papaya and human QC (Table 5). Interestingly, the overall difference in the specificities between human and plant QC for a set of tetrapeptides was not that large as it was observed for dipeptide and tripeptide substrates. This indicates that the amino acids in the 3rd and 4th position still affect the kinetic behavior especially of human QC. An exception, however, comprise the peptides with a proline residue in the second amino acid position which show noticeably reduced kcat/KM values in a set of tetrapeptides of the structure H-Gln-Xaa-Tyr-Phe-NH2 (Table 5). The reduction in specificity was more pronounced for human QC, leading to an approximately 8-fold difference in the kcat/KM-value as compared to papaya QC.
Slightly reduced specificities of human QC were also observed for conversion of substrates with a positively charged amino acid C-terminal of glutamine, as indicated by the specificities for H-Gln-Arg-Tyr-Phe-NH2, H-Gln-Arg-Tyr-Phe-NH2 and H-Gln-Lys-Arg-Leu-NH2 as compared to other tetrapeptides. Apparently, the reduced specificity was mainly due to a lower turnover number. This effect was not observed with the plant enzyme.
(n.r., not reactive; n.i., no inhibition; n.d., not determined; *, for substrate inhibition)
The results obtained with the tetrapeptides give also rise to another conclusion. As already pointed out, papaya QC showed a higher selectivity for dipeptides. For some of the tetrapeptides, however, higher specificity-constants were observed with human QC, as shown in
The differences between human and plant QC observed with peptides containing hydrophobic amino acids in the 3rd and 4th position becomes also evident by a comparison of the specificity constants of the enzymes towards H-Gln-Arg-Gly-Ile-NH2 and H-Gln-Arg-Tyr-Phe-NH2 or H-Gln-Gln-OH and H-Gln-Gln-Tyr-Phe-OH.
Human QC was also found to be more selective for homologous substrates containing N-terminal Gln and an increasing number of C-terminal Ala residues (Table 6). While the selectivity of human QC increased with substrate length, there was no such a trend with the papaya QC. Since human QC was less specific for a peptide containing a Ser residue in the sequence, also the nature of the side chain seems to be of importance (table 6).
Influence of Ionic Strength on Catalysis
Another parameter that was investigated concerning its influence on the substrate specificity was ionic strength. For that purpose, the kinetic parameters for cyclization of several substrates were determined in presence and absence of 0.5 M KCl (Table 7). Surprisingly, the selectivity for substrates with unchanged backbone did not change significantly by addition of the salt case of QC from papaya latex and human QC. However, the specificity constants of the human QC for H-Gln-Alan-OH and H-Gln-Glu-OH decreased by addition of KCl. As indicated by the individual kinetic parameters, this effect was due to an increasing KM and an only slightly decreasing kcat-value. In case of papaya QC, there was no effect on either parameter detected. The effect seemed not to be due to the negatively charged substrate as such, since unchanged parameters were found for the negatively charged peptide H-Gln-Glu-Asp-Leu-NH2. An interesting effect of the salt addition was found for the positively charged substrates H-Gln-Arg-Gly-Ile-NH2 and H-Gln-Lys-Arg-Leu-NH2. In case of plant and human QC, a positive effect on catalysis was determined mainly due to a smaller KM value and a slightly higher turnover number.
Physiological Substrates
In earlier studies, conversion of [Gln1]-TRH and [Gln1]-GnRH by QC was already shown for the QC from bovine and porcine pituitary (Busby, W. H. J. et al. 1987 J Biol Chem 262, 8532-8536; Fischer, W. H. and Spiess, J. 1987 Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84, 3628-3632). In addition to these already investigated pituitary hormones, three potential physiological substrates of human QC were synthesized and tested upon conversion, namely [Gln1]Gastrin, [Gln1]Neurotensin, and [Gln1]FPP. The kinetic parameters for their conversion are listed in Table 1. Interestingly, the glutaminyl peptides are converted to the respective pyroglutamyl peptides with increasing specificity constants depending on their size, i.e., the first largest peptide pro-gastrin with 17 amino acids followed by pro-neurotensin, pro-GnRH, pro-TRH and pro-FPP. These findings correspond to the data obtained with the synthetic peptides.
Surprisingly, the longer substrates are also converted with higher selectivity by the plant enzyme, a result that contrasts in part with the findings for the shorter oligopeptides. Possibly, there are secondary binding interactions between substrate and enzyme far distant from the active site.
The conversion of Gln-MCP-1, as revealed by the resistance against degradation by DPIV, is provided in
Peptides Comprising Modified Amino Acids
In order to further investigate the specificity and selectivity of the QCs, peptides were synthesized comprising either a modified N-terminal glutaminyl residue or a modified amino acid in the second position. The conversion of these peptides was investigated qualitatively utilizing MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry (see also example 3). Due to the cyclization of the glutaminyl residue or its analog, respectively, a mass difference of the substrate and the product of catalysis is detected. In cases of ammonia liberation of one mole per mole of substrate, the conversion was also analyzed quantitatively using the spectrophotometric assay.
The relaxed substrate specificity described here with amide substrates is in line with the identification of the EC activity of QC depicted in
Imidazole Derivatives
Imidazole and benzimidazole derivatives carrying substitutents in different positions of the 5-membered ring were tested as inhibitors of QC (Table 3). The constitution of the numbers refers to the imidazole ring. The applied methods are described in example 2.
N-1 derivatives. Among the imidazole derivatives tested on inhibition of human QC, most compounds that had improved Ki-values compared to imidazole showed alterations at one nitrogen atom. These compounds also contained one of the most effective QC inhibitors, 1-benzylimidazole. Interestingly, only little alterations of this structure led to a loss of inhibitory quality, as can be seen for 1-benzoylimidazole and phenylimidazole, which was inactive under the experimental conditions. Also in this case, the observed changes did not seem to be caused by a reduced electron density of the imidazole ring due to the negative mesomeric effect of the phenyl group, because also the bulky trimethyl-silyl group, exhibiting a positive inductive effect showed reduced binding compared to other residues. Interestingly, one of the less effective compounds of this group was 1-aminopropyl-imidazole. The basic amino group causes the small efficacy of this compound, since the sterically similar compounds 1-methylimidazole and 1-vinylimidazole showed improved binding to the active site. Thus, the positively charged amino group accounts for the smaller Ki-value, a result that is corroborated by a comparison of the Ki-values of N-ω-acetylated histamine (Table 3) and histamin (Table 4).
The measurements were carried out with two short N-terminal peptide sequences of Aβ3-40/42, [Gln3]-Aβ1-11 (sequence: DAQFRHDSGYE) and [Gln3]Aβ3-11, which contain a glutamine instead of an glutamic acid residue in the third position. Cleavage by DP IV and cyclization of the N-terminal glutamine residue by QC of the two peptides was tested using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Measurements were carried out using purified DP IV (porcine kidney) or crude porcine pituitary homogenate as sources of QC as well as for both enzymes for measurements of consecutive catalysis.
Results
1. Formation of [Gln3]Aβ3-11a from [Gln3]Aβ1-11a Catalysed by DPIV and its Prevention by the DP IV-Inhibitor Val-Pyrrolidide (Val-Pyrr)
DPIV or DPIV-like activity cleaves [Gln3]Aβ1-11a under formation of [Gln3]Aβ3-11a (
2. Formation of [pGlu3]Aβ3-11a from [Gln3]Aβ3-11a by Catalysis of QC in Pituitary Homogenate and Prevention by 1,10-Phenanthroline
Glutaminyl cyclase present in the homogenate of porcine pituitary catalyzes conversion of [Gln3]Aβ3-11a to [pGlu3]Aβ3-11a (
3. Consecutive Catalysis of DPIV and QC Resulting in Formation of [pGlu3]Aβ3-11a and Prevention by Val-Pyrr and 1,10-Phenanthroline
Formation of [pGlu3]Aβ3-11a from [Gln3]Aβ1-11a takes place after consecutive catalysis by DP IV and QC, measured in crude homogenate of porcine pituitary with added DPIV from porcine kidney (
4. Formation of [pGlu3]Aβ3-11a in Crude Pituitary Homogenate by Catalysis of Aminopeptidase(s)
Due to the formation of [pGlu3]Aβ3-11a that was not dependent on DPIV catalysis, degradation of [Gln3]Aβ1-11a was investigated in crude pituitary homogenate without the addition of DPIV (
All [Gln3]Aβ derived peptides tested, were efficiently converted by human QC into the corresponding pyroglutamyl forms (Table 8). Due to the poor solubility of [Gln3]Aβ3-21a and [Gln3]Aβ3-40 in aqueous solution, the determinations were carried out in presence of 1% DMSO. The higher solubility of [Gln3]Aβ3-11a, however, allowed the kinetic analysis of the QC-catalyzed turnover in presence and absence of DMSO (Table 8). Taken together, the investigation of the Aβ peptides as QC-substrates with chain-length of 8, 18 and 37 amino acids (see Table 8) confirmed the observation that human QC-activity increases with the length of its substrates. Accordingly, Gln1-gastrin, Gln1-neurotensin, Gln1-GnRH are among the best QC-substrates taking the specificity constants into account. Similarly, [Gln3]Aβ3-40 and glucagon, the largest QC-substrates investigated thus far, exhibited high second order rate constants (449 mM−1s−1 and 526 mM−1s−1 respectively) even in presence of 1% DMSO (Table 8).
Interestingly, the kinetic parameters for the conversion of the investigated amyloid peptides did not change dramatically with increasing size, suggesting only moderate effects of the C-terminal part of Aβ on QC catalysis. Therefore, due to better solubility and experimental handling, the further investigations concerning N-terminal aminopeptidase processing of these peptides were performed using the smaller fragments of Aβ, [Gln3]Aβ1-11a, [Gln3]Aβ3-11a and Aβ3-11a.
#Determined in absence of DMSO
In contrast to previous work, the incubation of Aβ3-11a and Aβ3-21a in presence of QC revealed that glutamate-containing peptides can also serve as QC-substrates (
Papaya QC converted Glu-βNA in a concentration range up to 2 mM (which was limited by substrate solubility) in accordance with Michaelis-Menten kinetics (
Subsequently, to study the impact of the proton concentration during Glu- and Gln-cyclization, the pH-dependence of cyclization of Glu-βNA and Gln-βNA under first-order rate-law conditions (i.e. substrate concentrations far below KM-values) was investigated (
The nonenzymatic pGlu-formation from Gln-βNA investigated at pH 6.0, was followed for 4 weeks and revealed a first-order rate constant of 1.2*10−7 s−1. However, during the same time period, no pGlu-βNA was formed from Glu-βNA, allowing to estimate a limiting rate constant for turnover of 1.0*10−9 s−1.
An aliquot of human QC (0.1-0.5 mg, 1 mg/ml) was inactivated overnight by dialysis against a 3000-fold excess of 5 mM 1,10-phenanthroline or 5 mM dipicolinic acid in 0.05 M Bis-Tris/HCl, pH 6.8. Subsequently, the inactivating agent was carefully removed by dialysis (3 cycles, 2000-fold excess) of the samples against 0.05 M Bis-Tris/HCl, pH 6.8, containing 1 mM EDTA. Reactivation experiments were performed at room temperature for 15 minutes using Zn++, Mn++, Ni++, Ca++, K+ and Co++ ions at concentrations of 1.0, 0.5, 0.25 mM in 0.025 M Bis-Tris, pH 6.8 containing 0.5 mM EDTA. QC activity assays were performed in 0.05 M Tris/HCl, pH 8.0, containing 2 mM EDTA, in order to avoid a rapid reactivation by traces of metal ions present in buffer solutions.
Human QC was almost completely inactivated after extensive dialysis against 5 mM 1,10-phenanthroline or 5 mM dipicolinic acid. After repeated dialysis overnight against chelator-free buffer solutions, QC activity was partially reactivated up to 50-60%. However, when dialyzed against buffers containing 1 mM EDTA, no reactivation was observed.
Near-total restoration of QC activity after inactivation by either dipicolinic acid or 1,10-phenanthroline was achieved by incubating the protein for 10 minutes with 0.5 mM ZnSO4 in presence of 0.5 mM EDTA (
It was the object of the following in vitro studies to provide I) evidence that QC catalyses the cyclization of glutamic acid at the N-terminus of Aβ(3-40/42) in vitro applying isolated recombinant enzyme, II) to prove QC-catalyzed pGlu-Aβ (3-40/42) formation in a cell-culture system and III) to demonstrate efficacy of the inhibitor 1-(3-(1H-imidazole-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxy-phenyl)thiourea hydrochloride in both approaches. In a further study, the oligomerization of pGlu-Aβ peptides was characterized.
a) Conversion of Aβ(3-40) by Purified Human QC
QC/EC-catalyzed formation of pGlu-Aβ(3-40) from Aβ(3-40) was analyzed using a specific ELISA. Commercially available microplates, coated with an antibody specifically binding the Aβ40 C-terminus, were applied in combination with a conjugated pGlu-Aβ specific antibody. Samples consisted of Aβ(3-40) (0.1-20 μM) in 100 mM Mes, pH 6.5, containing 0.1% Triton X-100 and 6 units of human QC. Reactions were incubated at 30° C. for up to 72 h. At indicated times, aliquots were withdrawn, QC was heat-inactivated for 2 min at 100° C. and samples stored at −20° C. until analysis. For suppression of pGlu-Aβ formation, 5 μM 1-(3-(1H-imidazole-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxy-phenyl)thiourea hydrochloride was added. Significant pGlu-Aβ formation was observed in presence of active QC from the beginning. At these times, there was no pGlu-Aβ detected in samples, which contained the inhibitor. Little pGlu-Aβ was detected after 72 h of incubation, i.e. at the end of the experiment.
The results clearly indicate that cyclization of glutamic acid at the N-terminus of Aβ(3-40) is a QC-catalyzed process, which can be suppressed by QC-inhibitors (see
b) Analysis of pGlu-Aβ Formation in Cell Culture
Generation of pGlu-Aβ(3-42) was assessed in cell culture, following expression of either Aβ or APP in β-TC3 or HEK293 cells, respectively. Cells were transiently transfected with the respective plasmids, and Aβ present in the medium was analyzed 24 h after transfection, applying ELISAs quantifying total Aβ (Aβ(x-42)) or pGlu-Aβ(3-42). Aβ(x-42) shall here relate to all N-terminal Aβ or truncated Aβ forms.
The direct expression of Aβ in the secretory pathway was achieved by fusion of the coding sequence of Aβ(3-42) C-terminally to the murine TRH-prepro-sequence. The prepro-sequence (SEQ ID No: 1-3) is successively processed in the secretory pathway by signalpeptidase and prohormone convertases, resulting in liberation of Aβ(3-42). In the accompanying approach, plasmids encoding variants of human APP were transfected into HEK293 cells (
Expression of APP-NL, NLE and NLQ resulted in generation of significant amounts of Aβ (
In an accompanying experiment, the location of the pGlu-Aβ formation was characterized (
From the above it becomes clear that human QC catalyzes the generation of pGlu-Aβ ex vivo, the process is favored under intracellular conditions, presumably in the secretory pathway.
c) Oligomerization of pGlu-Aβ Peptides in Vitro
In a first approach to demonstrate the crucial role of pGlu-Aβ peptides with regard to amyloidogenesis, different N-terminally modified Aβ peptides were studied in terms of their velocity of oligomer and fibril formation.
Two different methodologies were applied:
1.) Formation of oligomers and fibrils in vitro, based on native and fluorescence-labelled Aβ(1-42), Aβ(3-42) or pGlu-Aβ(3-42) followed by detection and quantification of the aggregates applying flow cytometry, and
2.) Investigation of the respective Aβ40 peptides using ThioflavineT-mediated fluorescence.
Native Aβ42 was spiked with monomeric Alexa Fluor 488 labeled Aβ peptides (20% of the final concentration) and incubated at a 10 μM total peptide concentration for up to 24 h. At different times, samples were removed, diluted to 10 nM (based on the initial concentration of the monomer), and analyzed by flow cytometry. Only very little fibril formation was detected for Aβ(1-42) after 24 h of incubation. The samples containing the N-truncated variants Aβ(3-42) and pGlu-Aβ(3-42) displayed fibril formation already after a few hours. Fibril formation from monomeric pGlu-Aβ(3-42) was finished already after 2-3 h of incubation, implying an exceptionally high tendency to aggregation (
Another experimental approach was done to characterize the potential role of N-truncated, modified Aβ for formation of aggregates. Monomeric pGlu-Aβ(3-42) was incubated with labeled Aβ(1-42) and unmodified Aβ(1-42) at a 10 μM final peptide concentration and a relative ratio of 1:2:7, respectively (
The observations for the Aβ42 peptides were substantiated using a common ThT fluorescence assay (
A quantification of the relative initial oligomer formation is provided in Table 9.
It was the object of the following studies to provide evidence for a QC-mediated pGlu-Aβ formation in vivo, using a rat model based on cortical injection of Aβ peptides. It was the central goal to prove that QC is responsible for pGlu-Aβ formation in vivo and that inhibitors are even efficacious in state of the art Aβ animal models, which display an underrepresented pGlu-Aβ pathology.
a) Formation of Glu-Aβ in a Rat Model Based on Traumatic Brain Injury
Formation of pGlu-Aβ was demonstrated in a rat model (Shin et al., 1997; J. Neurosci. 17: 8187-93). Here, one day after intrahippocampal/intracortical injection of freshly solubilized Aβ (1-40), aggregates could be detected using Congo red birefringence and immunohistochemistry. Aβ (1-40) contained fibrillar structures similar to Aβ. N-termini and C-termini of Aβ were processed in vivo yielding variants starting at Asp1 or at pGlu3 and ending at Val40 or Val39, suggesting that the rat brain produces enzymes that mediate the conversion of Aβ(1-40) into variants similar to those found in human Aβ deposits. This model facilitates efforts to elucidate the mechanisms of Aβ deposition evolving into amyloid plaques in Aβ therefore suggesting its usability as a primary screen for proof of concept (POC) studies in the field.
Specifically, it is the primary goal to characterize the dose, time, and site-specific effects of different QC inhibitors on deep intracortical applied Aβ species in the rat brain.
In initial trials, the effect of the QC-inhibitor 1-(3-(1H-imidazole-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxy-phenyl)thiourea hydrochloride on formation of pGlu-Aβ(3-40) after intracerebral (ic) injection of Aβ (1-40) or Aβ(3-40) was assessed, aiming at a first proof that a QC inhibitor is capable to inhibit the cyclization of the Glu3 of Aβ (
Results obtained by ELISA show that pre-treatment with 1-(3-(1H-imidazole-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxy-phenyl)thiourea hydrochloride reduced A pE(3-40) levels 24 h after injection, revealed by a reduction of the AβpE(3-40)/Aβ(x-40) ratio. Two dosages of 1-(3-(1H-imidazole-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxy-phenyl)thiourea hydrochloride were evaluated, injection of 5 μl of a 1 M solution and injection of 5 μl of a 0.2 M solution. The reduction of the ratio of pGlu-Aβ and total Aβ was significant in case of the higher dose and after injection of Aβ (3-40). Changes were also observed, if the low dose of 1-(3-(1H-imidazole-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxy-phenyl)thiourea hydrochloride was injected (
The results of the ELISA-analysis were entirely substantiated by immunohistochemical staining of pGlu-A following injection of Aβ (3-40) (
Major Result:
Thus, it is shown that pGlu-Aβ(3-40) is generated in vivo from Aβ(3-40), after injection of the peptide into rat cortex. pGlu-Aβ formation is prevented by application of QC-inhibitor 1-(3-(1H-imidazole-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxy-phenyl)thiourea hydrochloride.
b) Treatment of an Aβ Animal Models with QC-Inhibitors
The efficacy of QC-inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease and, e.g. neurodegeneration in Down Syndrome can be tested in animal models of Aβ.
Suitable animal models of Alzheimer's Disease are reviewed in McGowan et al., TRENDS in Genetics, Vol. 22, No. May 2006, pp 281-289, and are selected from PDAPP, Tg2576, APP23, TgCRND8, PSEN1M146V or PSEN1M146L, PSAPP, APPDutch, BRI-Aβ40 and BRI-Aβ42, JNPL3, TauP301S, TauV337M, TauR406W, rTg4510, Htau, TAPP, 3×TgAD.
PDAPP: First mutant APP transgenic model with robust plaque pathology. Mice express a human APP cDNA with the Indiana mutation (APPV717F). Plaque pathology begins between 6-9 months in hemizygous PDAPP mice. There is synapse loss but no overt cell loss and not NFT pathology is observed. This model has been used widely in vaccination therapy strategies.
Tg2576: Mice express mutant APPSWE under control of the hamster prion promoter. Plaque pathology is observed from 9 months of age. These mice have cognitive deficits but no cell loss or NFT pathology. It is one of the most widely used transgenic models.
APP23: Mice express mutant APPSWE under control of the Thy1 promoter. Prominent cerebrovascular amyloid, amyloid deposits are observed from 6 months of age and some hippocampal neuronal loss is associated with amyloid plaque formation.
TgCRND8: Mice express multiple APP mutations (Swedish plus Indiana). Cognitive deficits coincide with rapid extracellular plaque development at ˜3 months of age. The cognitive deficits can be reversed by Aβ vaccination therapy.
PSEN1M146V or PSEN1M146L (lines 6.2 and 8.9, respectively): These models where the first demonstration in vivo that mutant PSEN1 selectively elevates Aβ42. No overt plaque pathology is observed.
PSAPP (Tg2576×PSEN1M146L, PSEN1-A246E+APPSWE): Bigenic transgenic mice, addition of the mutant PSEN1 transgene markedly accelerated amyloid pathology compared with singly transgenic mutant APP mice, demonstrating that the PSEN1-driven elevation of Aβ42 enhances plaque pathology.
APPDutch: Mice express APP with the Dutch mutation that causes hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis-Dutch type in humans. APPDutch mice develop severe congophilic amyloid angiopathy. The addition of a mutant PSEN1 transgene redistributes the amyloid pathology to the parenchyma indicating differing roles for Aβ40 and Aβ42 in vascular and parenchymal amyloid pathology.
BRI-Aβ40 and BRI-Aβ42: Mice express individual Aβ isoforms without APP over-expression. Only mice expressing Aβ42 develop senile plaques and CAA, whereas BRI-Aβ40 mice do not develop plaques, suggesting that Aβ42 is essential for plaque formation.
JNPL3: Mice express 4R0N MAPT with the P301L mutation. This is the first transgenic model, with marked tangle pathology and cell loss, demonstrating that MAPT alone can cause cellular damage and loss. JNPL3 mice develop motor impairments with age owing to severe pathology and motor neutron loss in the spinal cord.
TauP301S: Transgenic mice expressing the shortest isoform of 4R MAPT with the P301S mutation. Homozygous mice develop severe paraparesis at 5-6 months of age with widespread neurofibrillary pathology in the brain and spinal cord and neuronal loss in the spinal cord.
TauV337M: Low level synthesis of 4R MAPT with the V337M mutation (1/10 endogenous MAPT) driven by the promoter of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). The development of neurofibrillary pathology in these mice suggests the nature of the MAPT rather than absolute MAPT intracellular concentration drives pathology.
TauR406W: Mice expressing 4R human MAPT with the R406W mutation under control of the CAMKII promoter. Mice develop MAPT inclusions in the forebrain from 18 months of age and have impaired associative memory.
rTg4510: Inducible MAPT transgenic mice using the TET-off system. Abnormal MAPT pathology occurs from one month of age. Mice have progressive NFT pathology and severe cell loss. Cognitive deficits are evident from 2.5 months of age. Turning off the transgene improves cognitive performance but NT pathology worsens.
Htau: Transgenic mice expressing human genomic MAPT only (mouse MAPT knocked-out). Htau mice accumulate hyperphosphorylated MAPT form 6 month and develop Thio-S-positive NFT by the time they are 15 months old.
TAPP (Tg2576×JNPL3): Increased MAPT forebrain pathology in TAPP mice compared with JNPL3 suggesting mutant APP and/or Aβ can affect downstream MAPT pathology.
3×TgAD: Triple transgenic model expressing mutant APPSWE, MAPTP301L on a PSEN1M146V ‘knock-in’ background (PSNE1-KI). Mice develop plaques from 6 months and MAPT pathology from the time they are 12 months old, strengthening the hypothesis that APP or Aβ can directly influence neurofibrillary pathology.
Suitable study designs could be as outlined in Tables 10 or 11. QC inhibitors could be applied via the drinking solution or chow, or any other conventional route of administration, e.g. orally, intravenously or subcutaneously.
The sequential extraction of Aβ can be performed as described in the materials section below, and initially, the SDS and formic acid (FA) fractions containing the highest Aβ concentrations can be analyzed using an ELISA quantifying total Aβ(x-42) or Aβ(x-40).
Subsequently after QC-inhibitor treatment, the Aβ animal can be tested regarding behavioral changes. Suitable behavioral test paradigms are, e.g. those, which address different aspects of hippocampus-dependent learning. Examples for such tests are the Morris water maze test and the Fear Conditioning test looking at contextual memory changes (Comery, T A et al, (2005), J Neurosci 25:8898-8902; Jacobsen J S et al, (2006), Proc Natl. Acad. Sci USA 103:5161-5166).
Cell Lines and Media
Human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y, human embryonic kidney cell line HEK293 and human monocyte cell line THP-1 were cultured in appropriate cell culture media (DMEM, 10% FBS for SH-SY5Y and HEK293), (RPMI1640, 10% FBS for THP-1), in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2 (HEK293, THP-1) or 10% CO2 (SH-SY5Y) at 37° C.
Isolation of Human MCP-1
Full-length cDNA of human MCP-1 was isolated from SH-SY5Y cells using RT-PCR. To achieve this, total RNA of SH-SY5Y cells was reversely transcribed by SuperScript II (Invitrogen) and subsequently, human MCP-1 was amplified on a 1:12.5 dilution of generated cDNA product in a 25 μl reaction with Pfu-DNA-Polymerase (Promega) using primers hMCP-1-1 (sense) and hMCP-1-2 (antisense) (Table 12). The resulting PCR-product was cloned into vector pcDNA 3.1 using HindIII and NotI restriction sites and confirmed by sequencing.
Site-Directed Mutagenesis of Human MCP-1
Deletions of the first (ΔQ1) and first and second (ΔQ1P2) amino acids of the mature human MCP-1 were generated by site-directed mutagenesis using primer ΔQ1-1 and ΔQ1-2 for ΔQ1 (Table 12) and primers ΔQ1P2-1 and ΔQ1P2-2 for ΔQ1P2 (Table 12). Parental DNA was digested with Dpn I. The pcDNA 3.1 plasmids with the deletions ΔQ1 and ΔQ1P2 of the mature human MCP-1 were transformed into E. coli JM109. Ampicillin-resistant clones were confirmed by sequencing and subsequently isolated for cell culture purposes using the EndoFree Maxi Kit (Qiagen).
Expression of N-Terminal Variants of Human MCP-1 in HEK293 Cells
For expression of N-terminal variants of human MCP-1, HEK293 cells were cultured in collagen I coated 6-well dishes and grown until 80% confluency, transfected using Lipofectamin2000 (Invitrogen) according to manufacturer's manual and incubated in the transfection solution for 5 hours. Afterwards, cells were allowed to recover in normal growth media over night. The next day, cells were incubated another 24 h in growth media. When application of QC specific inhibitor chemotactic cytokines (chemokines) was intended, cells were incubated for 24 h in absence or presence of 10 μM chemotactic cytokines (chemokines). After 24 h the media containing the human MCP-1 variants were collected and investigated in a migration assay for chemotactic potency. Furthermore, an aliquot of cell culture supernatant was stored at −80° C. for quantification of human MCP-1 concentration using human MCP-1-ELISA (Pierce).
TransWell Chemotaxis Assay
The chemotaxis assay was performed using 24 well TransWell plates with a pore size of 5 μm (Corning). Media, containing human MCP-1 variants expressed in HEK293, were used as chemoattractant. To this avail, 600 μl of the culture media of N-terminal human MCP-1 variants was applied directly or in dilutions 1:3, 1:10 and 1:30 in RPMI1640 to the lower chamber of the TransWell plate. Furthermore, undiluted media of HEK293 cells transfected with vector control were applied as negative control to the lower chamber. THP-1 cells were harvested and resuspended in RPMI1640 in a concentration of 1*106 cells/100 μl and applied in 100 μl aliquots to the upper chamber. Cells were allowed to migrate towards the chemoattractant for 2 h at 37° C. Subsequently, cells from the upper chamber were discarded and the lower chamber was mixed with 70 mM EDTA in PBS and incubated for 15 min at 37° C. to release cells attached to the membrane. Afterwards, cells migrated to the lower chamber were counted using a cell counter system (Scharfe System). The chemotactic index was calculated by dividing cells migrated to the stimulus from cells migrated to the negative control.
Methods
N-Terminal Degradation by Recombinant Human DP4
Full length recombinant human MCP-1(1-76) (SEQ ID NO: 5) encoded by the nucleic acid sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO: 4, obtained in Example 15 above, starting with an N-terminal glutamine (Peprotech) was dissolved in 25 mM Tris/HCl pH 7.6 in a concentration of 10 μg/ml. MCP-1 solution was either pre-incubated with recombinant human QC (0.0006 mg/ml) (obtained according to Example 1 above, SEQ ID No: 18 for nucleic acid sequence and SEQ ID No: 19 for amino acid sequence) for 3 h at 30° C. and subsequently incubated with recombinant human DP4 (0.0012 mg/ml) at 30° C. (see
N-Terminal Degradation by Human Rheumatoid Synovial Fibroblast MMP-1
Human recombinant MCP-1 starting with a N-terminal glutamine (Peprotech) was dissolved in 25 mM Tris/HCl, pH 7.6, in a concentration of 10 μg/ml. MMP-1 proenzyme from human rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts (Calbiochem) was activated using 25 mM p-aminophenylmercuric acetate (APMA), dissolved in 0.1 N NaOH at 37° C. for 3 h in a APMA:enzyme-mixture of 10:1. MCP-1 solution was either pre-incubated with recombinant human QC (0.0006 mg/ml) for 3 h at 30° C. and subsequently incubated with MMP-1 at 30° C. or incubated with MMP-1 without prior QC application. Resulting MMP-1 cleavage products were analyzed after 0 min, 15 min, 30 min, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h and 24 h using Maldi-TOF mass spectrometry (see
N-Terminal Degradation by Human Rheumatoid Synovial Fibroblast MMP-1 and Recombinant Human DP4
Human recombinant MCP-1 starting with a N-terminal glutamine (Peprotech) was dissolved in 25 mM Tris/HCl pH 7.6 in a concentration of 10 μg/ml. MMP-1 proenzyme from human rheumatoid synovial fibroblasts (Calbiochem) was activated using 25 mM p-aminophenylmercuric acetate (APMA) dissolved in 0.1 N NaOH at 37° C. for 3 h in a APMA:enzyme-mixture of 10:1. MCP-1 solution was either pre-incubated with recombinant human QC (0.0006 mg/ml) for 3 h at 30° C. and subsequently incubated with MMP-1 and DP4 at 30° C. or incubated with MMP-1 and DP4 without QC application. Resulting MMP-1 cleavage products were analyzed after 0 min, 15 min, 30 min, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h and 24 h using Maldi-TOF mass spectrometry (see
Timeline
30 male ApoE3*Leiden mice (age 12 weeks) were fed a mildly hypercholesterolemic diet for 3 weeks prior to surgical cuff placement.
After 3 weeks the mice underwent surgical non-constricting cuff placement (day 0) and were divided into 2 groups, matched for plasma cholesterol levels. The mice either received control (acidified) drinking water or drinking water that contains QC specific inhibitor 1-(3-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)thiourea hydrochloride in a concentration of 2.4-mg/ml. 7 days after start of treatment the inhibitor concentration was reduced to 1.2 mg/ml. 5 Mice of each group were sacrificed after 2 days for analysis of monocyte adhesion and infiltration, and 10 mice were sacrificed after 2 weeks for histomorphometric analysis to quantify the inhibition of accelerated atherosclerotic lesions and neointima formation.
Surgical Procedure of Cuff Placement
At the time of surgery, mice were anaesthetized with an intraperitoneal injection of 5 mg/kg Dormicum, 0.5 mg/kg Domitor and 0.05 mg/kg Fentanyl. This cocktail gives complete narcosis for at least one hour and can be quickly antagonized with Antisedan 2.5 mg/kg and Anexate 0.5 mg/kg.
A longitudinal 1 cm incision is made in the internal side of the leg and the femoral artery is dissected for 3 mm length from the femoral nerve and femoral vein. The femoral artery is looped with a ligature and a non-constrictive fine bore polyethylene tubing (0.4 mm inner diameter, 0.8 mm outer diameter, length 2 mm) is longitudinally opened and sleeved loosely around the femoral artery. The cuff is closed up with two ligature knots. The skin is closed with a continued suture.
After surgery, the animals were antagonized and placed in a clean cage on top of a heating pad for a few hours.
Sacrifice of the Animals
For histological analysis, animals were sacrificed either 2 days or 14 days after cuff placement. After anaesthesia, the thorax was opened and a mild pressure-perfusion (100 mmHg) with 4% formaldehyde was performed for 3 minutes by cardiac puncture. After perfusion, a longitudinal 2 cm incision was made in the internal side of the leg and the cuffed femoral artery was harvested as a whole and fixed overnight in 4% formaldehyde and processed to paraffin.
Analysis of Monocyte Adhesion and MCP-1 Expression
Adhesion of leukocytes in general and monocytes/macrophages in particular to the activated endothelium of the cuffed vessel wall was analyzed by microscopic analysis of cross sections harvested 2 days after cuff placement. The number of adhering and/or infiltrating leukocytes in general, identified as adhering cells at the luminal side of the vessel segment, and monocytes/macrophages in particular was counted and illustrated as cells per cross-section or as defined areas per cross section. Monocytes were identified by specific immunohistochemical staining by AIA31240 antibody, recognizing monocytes and macrophages. In addition on these sections a specific immunohistochemical staining for MCP-1 was performed.
Analysis of Vascular Remodeling and Accelerated Athero-Sclerosis
Vessel wall remodeling accelerated atherosclerosis and neoinitima formation were analyzed morphometrically in all mice sacrificed after 14 days. A full comparison between the two groups was performed for all relevant vessel wall parameters (neointima formation, vascular circumference (i.e. outward remodelling), media thickness, lumen stenosis). Accelerated atherosclerosis was analyzed by immunohistochemical staining for macrophages and foam cells in the lesion area by AIA31240 antibody. Furthermore, these sections were also stained for MCP-1.
Results
Preparation and Expression of Human MCP-1 in Mammalian Cell Culture
Amplification of human MCP-1 from neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y RNA resulted in a PCR-product of 300 bp (see
Expression of human MCP-1 variants in HEK293 leads to elevated levels within cell culture supernatant as monitored by human MCP-1 ELISA. Thereby, the level between the expressions of MCP-1 (WT) and MCP-1 (ΔQ1) (
TransWell Chemotaxis Assay
Purified human MCP-1 displays a bell-shaped chemotactic dose response curve, when attracting, e.g. monocytes, showing an optimum at approx. 1-50 ng/ml. Therefore, the generated cell culture supernatants containing MCP 1 variants were sequentially diluted in order to achieve the optimal working concentration of MCP-1 for chemotaxis assay attracting THP-1 monocytes.
After expression of MCP-1 (WT) and MCP-1 (ΔQ1), the concentrations of MCP-1 variants did not significantly differ (
Investigations on the Proteolytic Degradation of Human MCP-1 (1-76)
Within the circulation, MCP-1 is protected by a N-terminal pGlu-residue giving a resistance against N-terminal post-proline-cleaving aminopeptidases, e.g. DP4. However, the unprotected N-terminus, resulting e.g. from QC inhibitor administration, is readily cleaved by DP4 and thus, inactivating human MCP-1 (
Analysis of Vascular Remodeling and Accelerated Atherosclerosis in ApoE3*Leiden Mice
Treatment of cuff-induced accelerated atherosclerosis in ApoE3*Leiden mice had no effect on the total area within the outer diameter of the vessel segment (
The analysis of the cellular composition in the specific vessel wall layers shows no differences in relative contribution of smooth muscle cells and macrophages/foam cells to the composition of both the media and the adventitia after 2 days and 14 days (
Analysis of Monocyte Adhesion and MCP-1 Expression
Treatment of the mildly hypercholesterolemic ApoE3*Leiden mice (plasma cholesterol levels 12-15 mM) with 1-(3-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)thiourea hydrochloride resulted in a profound reduction of total adhering cells by 45%, (p<0.05) after 2 days. Specific analysis of adhering monocytes revealed an even stronger reduction of 67% (p<0.05) to the treated cuffed vessel segments (
MCP-1 expression was reduced in the vessel segments of 1-(3-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)thiourea hydrochloride treated mice 2 days after surgery, the moment of the highest elevation of MCP-1 expression in the model used (
At the later time point of 14 days, when the neointima formation/accelerated atherosclerosis has progressed, the overall MCP-1 expression is lower than observed for the early time point and in contrast, no reduction of MCP-1 expression can be monitored, in the media or in the neointima (
Taken together, these data indicate that oral dosing of 1-(3-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)propyl)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)thiourea hydrochloride has a beneficial effect on post interventional vascular remodelling and accelerated atherosclerosis in the ApoE3*Leiden cuff model.
In addition to the APP plasmid constructs, which were employed in example 13 (
Additionally, a mutation was introduced (E599Q) leading to a change at amino acid position three of Aβ. Instead of glutamic acid, the N3Q construct contains a glutamine. The N3Q mutation has a monitoring function, since glutamine displays enhanced pGlu-formation compared to the wild-type glutamate. Therefore, upon cleavage leading to the liberation of the glutamine, it will be readily cyclized by Glutaminyl Cyclase and can be measured using highly specific ELISA.
Interestingly, massive pGlu-Aβ formation was observed for the conditioned medium of APP-WT (N3Q)-transfected HEK-293 cells (
In order to substantiate the role of these newly discovered enzyme activity generating the molecular precursor of pGlu-Aβ peptides, inhibitors of the known β-secretase BACE I were employed in experiments based on transient expression of the plasmid constructs outlined in
The results clearly point to a direct, presumably an endoproteolytic, formation of the N-terminus of N-truncated peptides. These alternative processing pathways lead to the identification of other target proteases exhibiting β-secretase activity, which are potential targets to treat the formation of N-truncated Aβ peptides, preferably Aβ(3-42) and Aβ(3-40).
Material and Methods
Cell Lines, Media and Cultivation
Human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y, human embryonic kidney cell line HEK293 and human monocyte cell line THP-1 were cultured in appropriate cell culture media (DMEM, 10% FBS for SH-SY5Y and HEK293), (RPMI1640, 10% FBS for THP-1), in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2 (HEK293, THP-1) or 10% CO2 (SH-SY5Y) at 37° C.
Aβ Synthesis and Analytics
Synthesis and Purification of Aβ Peptides. Peptides were synthesized in a 50 μmol scale on an Fmoc-Val/Ala-NovaSyn®TGA resin (0.15 mmol/g) using an automated Symphony Synthesizer (Rainin). Fmoc-amino acids (five fold excess, double couplings) were activated with equimolar amounts of TBTU/NMM in DMF. Fmoc-deprotection was achieved by 20% piperidine in DMF. Fmoc-Gly-Ser(ΨMe, Mepro)-OH was introduced instead of Gly25-Ser26 in order to disrupt aggregation of the peptide chain. Global cleavage and deprotection was carried out by using a mixture of TFA/EDT/TIS/Water (94:2.5:2.5:1) for 4 h. The crude peptides were dissolved in HFIP for preparative HPLC. Preparative HPLC was performed with a gradient of solvent B (60% acetonitril, 40% solvent A) in solvent A (0.1% NH4OH (25%) in H2O, pH 9.0): 10% B for 2 min, 10 to 100% B until 35 min) on a 250×10 Gemini C18 column, 10 μm (Phenomenex). Prior to labeling, all Aβ peptides were treated as reported previously (Stine W B, Jr., Dahlgren K N, Krafft G A, LaDu M J 2003 In vitro characterization of conditions for amyloid-beta peptide oligomerization and fibrillogenesis. J Biol Chem 278:11612-11622) to obtain seedless material and further purified by RP-HPLC (column: Source 5RPC 4.6/150 ST (Amersham); solvent A: 0.1% NH4OH (25%) in H2O, pH 9.0; solvent B: 60% acetonitril, 40% solvent A; gradient: 25-56% solvent B in 31 min; flow rate: 1.0 ml/min) and lyophilized. Peptide purity and identity was confirmed by analytical HPLC (150×4.6, 5μ Source or Gemini) and MALDI-MS.
Fluorescence Labeling. The peptides Aβ(1-42), Aβ(3-42) and pGlu-Aβ(3-42) were labeled with the fluorescence dye Alexa Fluor 488 according to the manufacturer's instructions (Alexa Fluor 488 5-TFP; Invitrogen). The different reaction products were then separated by RP-HPLC as described above, analyzed by HPLC-MS and lyophilized in the dark. The content of each peptide was determined by amino acid analysis (ZPA Bingen, Germany). The anti-Aβ antibody 4G8 (Chemicon Temecula, Calif.) was labeled with the fluorescence dye Alexa Fluor 488 according to the manufacturer's instructions (Alexa Fluor 488 Monoclonal Antibody Labeling Kit; Invitrogen). Primary amino groups are subjected to derivatization by the fluorescent dye, i.e. the primary amino groups and the lysyl side chains. The reaction mixture was subjected to separation using HPLC, applying the method that was described in the synthesis section. The fractions were analyzed using mass spectrometry, in order to identify the degree of labeling. For the assays, only single and double-labeled peptides were applied (
ELISA analysis. Aβ(x-40), Aβ(x-42) and Aβ(N3pE-42)-specific sandwich ELISAs (all from IBL, Hamburg) were performed according to the manufacturer's manual. Briefly, samples were diluted according to the expected concentration in the brain parts and applied onto a plate precoated with an antibody specific for the respective C-terminus. The samples were incubated overnight. The next day, the plate washed 8 times and incubated for 1 h with a horse radish peroxidase conjugated detection antibody afterwards. Following this incubation the plate washed 10 times and then developed with chromogen (TMB) for 30 min. After applying the stop solution the absorption at 450 nm was measured using a microplate reader (TECAN Sunrise). For preparation of standard curves the respective synthetic peptides supplied with the ELISA kits were used.
The standard curve for Aβ(N3pE-42) was linear from 500 pg/ml to 7.8 pg/ml. Aβ(x-40), Aβ(x-42) was fitted according to an exponential model.
Depending on the assay, the fraction of Aβ extraction and the analyzed model, the following sample dilutions were used:
All other samples were analysed undiluted.
For analysis of Aβ in case of the cell culture studies, conditioned medium was diluted using EIA buffer (IBL, Hamburg) as before and diluted samples were subjected to ELISA analysis.
Aβ Extraction from Murine and Rat Brain
Samples for ELISA were prepared from 8 animals per group (total 32 animals). After removal of the brain, the tissue were flushed shortly with ice cold saline and placed shortly on filter paper. The cerebellum were prepared from each brain and stored separately. The brains were weighed and frozen in liquid nitrogen in 2 ml Cryo-tubes and stored at −80° C. until analysis.
For sequential separation of Aβ the following procedures were used:
4. Extraction: TBS
Enzyme Assays and Analysis. For determination of mQC and hQC during expression and purification, activity was evaluated using H-Gln-βNA at 30° C. Briefly, the samples consisted of 0.2 mM fluorogenic substrate, 0.1 U pyroglutamyl aminopeptidase in 0.05 M Tris/HCl, pH 8.0 and an appropriately diluted aliquot of QC in a final volume of 250 μl. The excitation/emission wavelength was 320/405 nm. The assay reactions were initiated by addition of QC. One unit is defined as the amount of QC catalyzing the formation of 1.0 μmol pGlu-βNA from H-Gln-βNA per minute under the described conditions.
For inhibitor testing, the sample composition was the same as described above, except for the added putative inhibitory compound and the substrate. Due to the pronounced substrate inhibition by Gln-βNA, inhibitory constants were determined using H-Gln-AMC at a concentration range between 0.25 and 4 KM. The excitation/emission wavelength was adjusted to 380/460 nm. In contrast to H-Gln-βNA, substrate inhibition by H-Gln-AMC is negligible in the applied substrate concentration range and does therefore not interfere with the kinetic evaluation. The fluorometric assay using H-Gln-AMC was also applied to investigate the pH-dependence of the catalytic parameters and inhibitory constants. In these studies, however, the reaction buffer consisted of 0.075 M acetic acid, 0.075 M Mes and 0.15 M Tris, adjusted to the desired pH using HCl or NaOH. This buffer provides a constant ionic strength over a very broad pH-range. Evaluation of the acquired enzyme kinetic data was performed using the following equations:
kcat(pH)=kcat(limit) (1)
KM(pH)=KM(limit)*(1+[H+]/KHS+KE1/[H+]+KE1/[H+]*KE2/[H+]) (2)
kcat/KM(pH)=kcat/KM(limit)*1/(1+[H+]/KHS+KE1/[H+]+KE1/[H+]*KE2/[H+]) (3)
K1(pH)=Ki(limit)*(1+[H+]/KHI+KE1/[H+]+KE1/[H+]*KE2/[H+]) (4)
in which the left expressions denote the pH-dependent (observed) kinetic parameters. The parameters denoted with limit represent the pH-independent (“limiting”) values. KHS, KHI, KE1 and KE2 denote the dissociation constants of the substrate amino group, the basic nitrogen of the imidazole-based inhibitor and two dissociating groups of the enzyme, respectively. The data of the pH-dependencies of the mQC inhibition by cysteamine derivatives were analyzed by assuming one dissociating group. The measurements were performed with a Novostar (BMG Labtechnologies, Germany) or a SpectraFluor Plus (TECAN, Switzerland) reader for microplates.
For investigation of the substrate specificity, mQC activity was studied spectrophotometrically utilizing glutamic dehydrogenase as the auxiliary enzyme. In contrast to the fluorometric assays, a variety of substrates can be analyzed because of the conversion of ammonia in the coupled reaction. Samples consisted of varying concentrations of the QC substrate (0.25-10 KM), 0.3 mM NADH, 14 mM β-ketoglutaric acid and 30 U/ml glutamic dehydrogenase in a final volume of 250 μl. The reaction buffer was 0.05 M Tris/HCl, pH 8.0. Reactions were started by addition of QC and pursued by monitoring of the decrease in absorbance at 340 nm for 8-15 min. The initial velocities were evaluated and the enzymatic activity was determined from a standard curve of ammonia obtained under assay conditions. All samples were measured at 30° C., using the Sunrise reader for microplates (TECAN, Switzerland). All kinetic data were evaluated using GraFit software (version 5.0.4. for windows, ERITHACUS SOFTWARE Ltd., Horley, UK).
Murine QC (mQC) Expression in P. pastoris. 1-2 μg of plasmid DNA were applied for transformation of competent P. pastoris cells by electroporation according to the manufacturer's instructions (BioRad). Selection was carried out on plates containing 100 μg/ml Zeocin. In order to test the recombinant yeast clones upon mQC expression, recombinants were grown for 24 h in 10 ml conical tubes containing 2 ml BMGY. Afterwards, the yeast was centrifuged and resuspended in 2 ml BMMY containing 0.5% methanol. This concentration was maintained by addition of methanol every 24 h for about 72 h. Subsequently, QC activity in the supernatant was determined. Clones that displayed the highest activity were chosen for further experiments and fermentation.
The expression of mQC was performed in a 5 L reactor (Biostad B. B. Braun biotech, Melsungen, Germany). Fermentation was carried out in basal salts medium supplemented with trace salts at pH 5.5. Initially, biomass was accumulated in a batch and a fed batch phase with glycerol as the sole carbon source for about 28 h. Expression of QC was initiated by methanol feeding according to a three-step profile recommended by Invitrogen for an entire fermentation time of approximately 65 h. Subsequently, cells and turbidity were removed from the mQC-containing supernatant by two sequential centrifugation steps at 6000×g and 38000×g for 15 min and 4 h, respectively.
For purification of mQC, the fermentation broth was diluted with water to a conductivity of about 5 mS/cm and applied in reversed flow direction (15 mL/min) onto a Streamline SP XL column (2.5×100 cm), equilibrated with 0.05 M phosphate buffer, pH 6.4. After a washing step in reversed flow direction with equilibration buffer for 2 column volumes, proteins were eluted at a flow rate of 8 mL/min using 0.15 M Tris buffer, pH 7.6, containing 1.5 M NaCl in forward direction. QC-containing fractions were pooled and ammonium sulfate added to a final concentration of 1 M. The resulting solution was applied onto a Butyl Sepharose FF column (1.6×13 cm) at a flow rate of 4 mL/min. Bound mQC washed with 0.05 M phosphate buffer, pH 6.8 containing 0.75 M ammonium sulfate for 5 column volumes and eluted in reversed flow direction with 0.05 M phosphate buffer, pH 6.8. The fractions containing mQC were pooled and desalted overnight by dialysis against 0.025 M Tris, pH 7.5. Afterwards, the pH was adjusted to 8.0 by addition of NaOH and applied (4.0 mL/min) onto a Uno Q column (Bio Rad), equilibrated with 0.02 M Tris, pH 8.1.
The QC's were stable at 4° C. for up to 1 month. For long-term storage at −20° C., 50% glycerol was added. The protein was applied for determination of inhibitory constants and for protein crystallization.
Analysis of Aβ Oligomerization
Preparation of seedless Aβ stock solutions. Prior to analysis, the lyophilized amyloid peptides were subjected to a disaggregation procedure. The peptides were dissolved in HFIP (1.0 mM) and evaporated in a stream of nitrogen. Residual solvent was removed by evacuation in a speed vac for 10 min. Afterwards, stock solutions of Aβ42 (100 μM) and Aβ40 (5 mM), were prepared in pure DMSO. Aβ solutions treated in this way have been described to be free of oligomeric species (Stine W B, Jr., Dahigren K N, Krafft G A, LaDu M J 2003 In vitro characterization of conditions for amyloid-beta peptide oligomerization and fibrillogenesis. J Biol Chem 278:11612-11622).
Aggregation Assay and Flow Cytometry. Seedless Aβ peptides were diluted to 10 μM (final total peptide concentration) into 50 mM sodium acetate, pH 5.5 containing 2 mM DTT and 100 mM NaCl and incubated at 37° C. without shaking. For fibril formation analysis, the peptides were either used as a mixture of unlabeled peptide (80%) and the respective fluorescence labeled peptide (20%) or as unlabeled peptides alone. For the seeded aggregation, each reaction contained 70% of unlabeled Aβ(1-42), 20% of Alexa Fluor 488 labeled Aβ(1-42) and 10% of unlabeled pGlu-Aβ(3-42). In order to characterize the progress of the reaction, aliquots were removed at the indicated times, diluted to 10 nM into PBS-T (0.05% Tween-20) and analyzed. For reactions containing unlabeled peptides only, prior to flow cytometry aliquots were diluted to 5 nM into PBS-T and incubated with fluorescence labeled antibody 4G8 (Chemicon, Temecula, Calif.) at 1 nM for 1 h at 4° C.
For the detection of Aβ oligomers and fibrils produced during solution phase aggregation, a Cytomics FC500 (Beckman Coulter) flow cytometer equipped with a single 20 mW 488 nm argon-ion laser was used. The green fluorescence of the dye Alexa Fluor 488 was detected by the corresponding FL1 (logarithmic scale) photomultiplier equipped with a 525 bandpass filter. To ensure identical conditions for all measurements, all samples were measured in TruCount Tubes (BD Biosciences) and analysis was stopped after 20,000 beads were counted. Counts were transferred into ANSMS for evaluation (Alzheimer normalized specific measurement signal: event counts from flow cytometry analysis normalized to the size of the particles, i.e. to a mean size of FS Log=250). Since there is a correlation between particle size and intensity of the fluorescence signal, it was possible to discriminate between smaller oligomeric and larger fibrillar structures in a single experiment (
Thus, different regions in a FL1 Log/SS Log dot blot comprising areas of strong or weak fluorescence intensity were assigned to fibrils or oligomers, respectively.
Thioflavin T Assay. Fibril formation analysis using Thioflavin T fluorescence was performed essentially as described previously (Chalifour R J, McLaughlin R W, Lavoie L, Morissette C, Tremblay N, Boule M, Sarazin P, Stea D, Lacombe D, Tremblay P, Gervais F 2003 Stereoselective interactions of peptide inhibitors with the beta-amyloid peptide. J Biol Chem 278:34874-34881). The DMSO stock solution was diluted in PBS to a final concentration of 50 μM of Aβ peptide. The peptide solution was added to an equal volume of ThT solution (20 μM ThT, 0.3 M NaCl, 0.01% NaN3) and applied to a 96-well microplate. Routinely, assays of each peptide were performed in triplicate on one plate. The plate was covered with an adhesive film (EXCEL Scientific, Wrightwood, Calif., USA) and incubated in the plate reader at 30° C. for up to 250 h. The fluorescence was measured every 4 h (excitation 440 nm, emission 590 nm).
Data Evaluation. Aβ data were analyzed according to common algorithms. Fibril formation from monomeric Aβ was evaluated using equation A,
y=limit*[1−1/(1+ea*t+b)] A.
The progress curve of the de novo pGlu-Aβ(3-40) fibril formation was analyzed according to equation B, denoting a quick initial first-order aggregation reaction, which is followed by a higher-order fibril formation process:
y=limit1−e−a*t+b+limit2*[1−1/(1+ec*t+d)] B.
The velocity of initial seed formation was quantified from the derivatives in respect of time,
y′=(limit*a*ea*t+b)/(1+ea*t+b)2 A′ and
y′=a*e−a*t+b+(limit2*c*ec*t+d)/(1+ec*t+d)2 B′.
Behavioral Analyses
Evaluation of Contextual Fear Memory
Procedure:
Day 1:
ESI-Mass spectra were obtained with a SCIEX API 365 spectrometer (Perkin Elmer). The 1H-NMR (500 MHz) data was recorded on a BRUKER AC 500, using DMSO-D6 as solvent. Chemical shifts are expressed as parts per million downfield from tetramethylsilane. Splitting patterns have been designated as follows: s (singlet), d (doublet), dd (doublet of doublet), t (triplet), m (multiplet), and br (broad signal).
Detailed Synthesis Description
1H-imidazole-1-propanamine was reacted with the corresponding isothiocyanate in ethanol under reflux for 8 h. After that the solvent was removed and the remaining oil was dissolved in methylene chloride. The organic layer washed twice with a saturated solution of NaHCO3 followed by NaHSO4 and brine, dried then evaporated. The remaining solid was re-crystallized from ethyl acetate, yielding the example thiourea in yields of 80-98%.
4.0 mmol of 3,4-dimethoxyphenyl isothiocyanate and 4.0 mmol of 3-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)alkyl-1-amine were dissolved in 10 mL of absolute ethanol. After stirring for 2 h under reflux, the solvent was evaporated and the resulting solid was recrystallized from ethanol.
Yield: 0.66 g (51.3%); mp: 160.0-161.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.8-2.0 (m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (m, 2H), 3.75 (s, 6H), 3.9-4.0 (m, 2H), 6.7-6.8 (m, 1H), 6.9 (br m, 2H), 6.95 (s, 1H), 7.15 (s, 1H), 7.55 (br s, 1H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 9.3 (s, 1H); MS m/z 321.2 (M+H), 253.3 (M-C3H3N2.)
1H-imidazole-1-propanamine was reacted with the corresponding isocyanate in ethanol under reflux for 8 h. After that the solvent was removed and the remaining oil was dissolved in methylene chloride. The organic layer washed twice with a saturated solution of NaHCO3 followed by NaHSO4 and brine, dried then evaporated. The remaining solid was re-crystallized from ethyl acetate, yielding the example urea in yields of 85-90%.
The 1H-imidazole-1-alkylamines were prepared according to the literature from □-brom-alkyl-phthalimides and imidazolium salt and. subsequent hydrazinolysis. The resulting products were transformed into the thioureas according to example 1-53 giving a 88% (example 136) and 95% (example 137) yield.
All examples were made from the corresponding thioureas by reacting with Water-soluble-carbodiimide (WSCD) and 1H-imidazole-1-propanamine in dry dimethyl form-amide for 2 h at r.t. giving the trisubstituted guanidines with yields from 40-87%.
Imidazole was reacted with the corresponding bromomethylphenylcyanide in DMF, utilizing 1 equivalent of NaH for 3 h under rt., giving the 1H-imidazole-1-methylphenylcyanides. The solvent was removed and the resulting oil was re-dissolved in dioxane. The cyanides were converted in the corresponding amines using 1 equivalent of LiAlH4. After adding a saturated solution of KHSO4, dioxane was evaporated and the aqueous layer was extracted by means of CHCl3. The organic layer was concentrated in vacuo and the amine was converted in the corresponding thioureas according to example 1-53 giving a 78% (example 103) and 65% (example 104) and 81% (example 105) yield.
Starting from the corresponding methanesulfonate-2-methylpropyl-phthalimides the amines were synthesized as described for the amines in example 136-137. The resulting products were transformed into the thioureas according to example 1-53 giving example 106-109 in total yields of 25-30%.
1H-imidazole-1-propanamine was reacted with the corresponding 2-chlorobenzo[d]thiazole in toluol for 24 h at a temperature of 130° C. After removing the solvent and recrystallization from methanol example 110-112 was yielded in an amount of 55-65%.
1H-imidazole-1-propanamine was reacted with the corresponding 2-phenyl acetic acid in dry dioxane by adding one equivalent of CAIBE and N-methylmorpholine at a temperature of 0° C. After 2 h the mixture was allowed to warm to r.t. and the mixture was stirred for 12 h. After removing the solvent the resulting oil was redissolved in methylene chloride and the organic layer washed by means of an aqueous solution of NaHCO3 and water, dried and the solvent was evaporated. The remaining oil was dissolved in dioxane adding Laweson's Reagent. After stirring for 12 h a saturated solution of NaHCO3 was added. Dioxane was evaporated and the aqueous layer was extracted by means of ethyl acetate. The organic layer was separated, dried and the solvent was evaporated. The remaining solid was crystallized from acetyl acetate/ether, giving 113-118, 120-124 and 126-132 with total yields of 62-85%.
A mixture of 4.0 mmol triethylamine and 4.0 mmol of 3-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)alkyl-1-amine 20 mL of dioxane was added drop wise to an ice cooled, stirred solution of 4.0 mmol of 2-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)acetyl chloride in 30 mL of dioxane. The mixture was allowed to warm to r.t., and then stirred for 1 h. After removing the solvent by reduced pressure, the residue was redissolved in 50 mL of dichloromethane. The organic layer washed by means of 30 mL of saturated aqueous solution of NaHCO3, and water. The organic solution was dried, filtered, and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure. After redissolving in 50 mL of dry dioxane 2.2 mmol of Lawesson's reagent was added, and the mixture was heated to 90° C. and stirred for 8 h. The solvent was removed by reduced pressure, and the residue was redissolved in 50 mL of dichloromethane. The organic layer washed three times by means of a saturated aqueous solution of NaHCO3, followed three times by water, dried, filtered, and then the organic solvent was removed. The compound was purified by chromatography using a centrifugal-force-chromatography device, (Harrison Research Ltd.) utilizing silica plates of a layer thickness of 2 mm, and a CHCl3/MeOH gradient as eluting system.
Yield: 0.14 g (10.6%); melting point: 148.0-150.0° C.
1H NMR δ 2.0-2.15 (br m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (m, 2H), 3.7 (s, 6H), 6.75-6.8 (m, 2H), 4.1-4.2 (m, 2H), 6.8-6.9 (m, 2H), 6.95-7.0 (m, 1H), 7.4 (s, 1H), 7.75-7.85 (br m, 1H), 8.6 (s, 1H), 10.2 (s, 1H); MS m/z 320.2 (M+H), 252.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
11.06 mmol of 3,4-dimethoxyphenyl acetonitrile, 34.8 mmol of 2-Bromo-1-chloroethanole and 1.16 mmol of triethylbenzylammonium hydrochloride were dissolved in 10 mL of an aqueous solution of KOH (60%). The mixture was transferred into an ultrasonic bath and vigorously stirred for 3 h at room temperature. The resulting suspension was diluted with 40 mL of water and extracted three times by means of 20 mL of dichloromethane. The combined organic layers where washed by means of an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid (1N), dried over Na2SO4 and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The remaining oil was purified by flash-chromatography using silica gel and ethyl acetate/heptane as eluting system, resulting in 0.81 g (34.4%) of 1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)cyclopropanecarbonitrile 3.9 mmol of 1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)cyclopropanecarbonitrile and 11.2 mmol of KOH were suspended in 80 mL of ethylene glycol. The mixture was stirred for 12 h under reflux. Then 80 mL of water were added and the aqueous layer was extracted two times with ether. After pH adjustment to a value of pH=4-5 using HCl (1N) the aqueous layer was extracted three times by means of ether, then the combined organic layers were dried over Na2SO4 and the solvent was removed, resulting in 0.81 g (93.5%) of 1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)cyclopropanecarboxylic acid.
3.44 mmol of 1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)cyclopropanecarboxylic acid, 3.5 mmol of N-Methyl morpholine, and 3.5 mmol of isobutyl chloroformiat were dissolved in dry tetrahydrofurane and stirred for 15 min at −15° C. Then 3.5 mmol of 3-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)alkyl-1-amine was added and the mixture was allowed to warm to 0° C. and was stirred for 12 h. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the remaining oil was redissolved in chloroform. Then the organic layer washed two times by means of a saturated aqueous solution of NaHCO3, then dried over Na2SO4 and the solvent was removed. Purification was performed by means of centrifugal forced chromatography using a chromatotron® device (Harrison Research Ltd.) utilizing silica plates of a layer thickness of 2 mm, and a CHCl3/MeOH gradient as eluting system resulting in 0.671 g (59.3%) of N-(3-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)propyl)-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)cyclopropane-carboxamide.
After redissolving in 30 mL of dry dioxane 1.43 mmol of Lawesson's reagent were added, and the mixture was heated to 90° C. and stirred for 8 h. The solvent was removed by reduced pressure, and the residue was remains were dissolved in 50 mL of dichloromethane. The organic layer washed three times by means of a saturated aqueous solution of NaHCO3, followed three times by water, dried, filtered, and then the organic solvent was removed. The compound was purified by chromatography using a centrifugal-force-chromatography device, (Harrison Research Ltd.) utilizing silica plates of a layer thickness of 2 mm, and a CHCl3/MeOH gradient as eluting system.
Yield: 0.33 g (46.2%); melting point: 127.0-127.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.1-1.2 (t, 2H), 1.55-1.6 (t, 2H), 2.0-2.1 (m, 2H), 3.5-3.6 (m, 2H), 3.7-3.8 (s, 6H), 4.1-4.2 (t, 2H), 6.8-6.9 (m, 3H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.75 (s, 1H), 8.8 (m, 1H), 9.05 (s, 1H; MS m/z 346.0 (M+H), 278.2 (M-C3H3N2.), 177.1 (M-C6H8N3S.)
A mixture of 1 equivalent triethylamine and 3,4-dimethoxyaniline in dioxane was added to an stirred solution of the corresponding ω-bromoalkyl acidic chloride at a temperature of 0° C. The solution was allowed to warm to r.t. and stirred for 2 h. The solvent was evaporated, and the remaining oil was redissolved in dichloromethane. The organic layer washed by means of water, dried, filtered, and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure.
Imidazole and sodium hydride were suspended in and the mixture was stirred under inert conditions at r.t. for 3 h. ω-Bromo-N-(3,4-dimethoxy-phenyl)alkylamide was added and the mixture was heated to 100° C. and stirred for 8 h. After that, the solvent was evaporated, hot toluene were added and the solution was filtered. Then the solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The transformation into the thioamides was performed as described for example 113-132 by means of Laweson's reagent, giving 133-135 in total yields of 13-20%.
The analytical data for further examples, which were synthesized according to the general synthesis schemes described above, are as follows:
melting point: 122-122.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.85-1.95 (m, 2H), 2.8 (s, 3H), 3.2-3.5 (br d, 2H), 3.8-3.9 (m, 2H), 6.85 (d, 1H), 7.15 (d, 1H), 7.3-7.5 (br d, 2H), 7.65 (s, 1H); MS m/z 199.1 (M+H), 221.3 (M+Na), 131.0 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 147.0-147.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.3-1.4 (s, 9H), 1.85-1.95 (m, 2H), 3.5 (t, 2H), 3.8 (t, 2H), 6.85 (d, 1H), 7.15 (d, 1H), 7.3-7.5 (br d, 2H), 7.65 (s, 1H); MS m/z 241.1 (M+H), 173.1 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 127.0-128.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.85-1.95 (m, 2H), 3.2-3.5 (br d, 2H), 3.8-3.9 (m, 2H), 4.6 (s, 2H), 6.8 (d, 1H), 7.15 (d, 1H), 7.19-7.35 (m, 5H), 7.5-7.6 (br d, 2H), 7.85 (s, 1H); MS m/z 275.3 (M+H), 207.1 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 166.5-167.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.95-2.05 (m, 2H), 3.3-3.5 (br d, 2H), 3.9-4.0 (m, 2H), 6.85 (d, 1H), 7.05 (m, 1H) 7.15 (d, 1H), 7.25 (m, 2H), 7.35 (m, 2H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 7.8 (br s, 1H), 9.5 (br s, 1H); MS m/z 261.1 (M+H), 193.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 147.0-148.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.95-2.05 (m, 2H), 3.3-3.5 (br d, 2H), 3.9-4.05 (m, 2H), 6.85 (d, 1H), 7.05-7.15 (m, 3H), 7.3-7.4 (m, 2H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 7.7-7.8 (br s, 1H), 9.4 (br s, 1H); MS m/z 279.3 (M+H), 211.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 100.0-100.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.15-1.2 (t, 3H), 1.9-2.0 (m, 2H), 2.5-2.6 (m, 2H), 3.3-3.5 (br d, 2H), 3.9-4.05 (m, 2H), 6.85 (d, 1H), 7.1-7.2 (m, 3H), 7.25-7.3 (m, 2H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 7.7-7.8 (br s, 1H), 9.4 (br s, 1H); MS m/z 289.3 (M+H), 221.1 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 154.5-155.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.9-2.1 (br m, 2H), 3.4-3.6 (br d, 2H), 3.95-4.1 (br m, 2H), 6.85 (d, 1H), 7.2 (d, 1H), 7.6-7.8 (m, 5H), 8.2 (br s, 1H), 9.9 (br s, 1H); MS m/z 329.3 (M+H), 261.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 170.0-171.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.9-2.1 (br m, 2H), 2.4-2.5 (s, 3H), 3.2-3.5 (br m, 2H), 3.9-4.1 (m, 2H), 6.85 (d, 1H), 7.15 (d, 1H), 7.5-7.65 (br m, 3H), 7.8-7.9 (m, 2H), 8.1 (m, 2H), 9.8 (br s, 1H); MS m/z 303.2 (M+H), 235.1 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 125.0-125.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.8-2.0 (br m, 2H), 3.2-3.5 (br m, 2H), 3.7 (s, 3H), 3.9-4.0 (m, 2H), 6.7-6.9 (m, 3H), 7.1-7.2 (m, 3H), 7.5 (s, 1H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 9.2 (s, 1H); MS m/z 291.1 (M+H), 223.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 120.0-120.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.8-2.0 (br m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (br m, 2H), 3.75 (s, 6H), 3.9-4.0 (m, 2H), 6.5 (d, 1H), 6.6 (s, 1H), 6.9 (s, 1H), 7.15 (s, 1H), 7.3 (d, 1H), 7.5 (br s, 1H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 9.75 (s, 1H); MS m/z 321.2 (M+H), 253.3 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 142.0-143.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.8-2.0 (br m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (br m, 2H), 3.6 (s, 6H), 3.95-4.0 (m, 2H), 6.25 (m, 1H), 6.6 (m, 2H), 6.9 (s, 1H), 7.2 (s, 1H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 7.8 (s, 1H), 9.5 (s, 1H); MS m/z 321.2 (M+H), 253.3 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 103.0-103.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.9-2.0 (br m, 2H), 3.3-3.5 (br d, 2H), 3.9-4.0 (m, 2H), 4.2-4.3 (m, 4H), 6.7 (m, 1H), 6.8-6.8 (m, 1H), 6.9 (m, 2H), 7.2 (s, 1H), 7.6 (m, 2H), 9.3 (s, 1H); MS m/z 319.3 (M+H), 251.3 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 115.0-115.6° C.
1H NMR δ 1.9-2.1 (br m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (br d, 2H), 4.05-4.15 (m, 2H), 6.0 (s, 2H), 6.7 (m, 1H), 6.8-6.85 (m, 1H), 6.95 (d, 1H), 7.25 (s, 1H), 7.45 (s, 1H), 7.7 (br s, 1H), 8.5 (br s, 1H), 9.4 (br s, 1H); MS m/z 305.2 (M+H), 237.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 124.5-125.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.8-2.0 (m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (br m, 2H), 3.6 (s, 3H), 3.7 (s, 6H), 3.9-4.0 (m, 2H), 6.65 (m, 2H), 6.85 (s, 1H), 7.2 (s, 1H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 7.7 (br s, 1H), 9.4 (s, 1H); MS m/z 351.3 (M+H), 283.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 89.5-90.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.9-2.1 (br m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (br m, 2H), 3.7 (s, 3H), 3.9-4.0 (m, 2H), 6.6-6.7 (m, 1H), 6.8-6.9 (m, 2H), 7.1 (m, 2H), 7.15-7.25 (br m, 1H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 7.8 (br s, 1H), 9.5 (s, 1H); MS m/z 291.1 (M+H), 223.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 126.0-126.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.5 (br m, 3H), 1.9-2.0 (br m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (br m, 2H), 3.9-4.0 (br m, 4H), 6.8-6.9 (m, 2H), 6.95 (s, 1H), 7.15-7.2 (m, 2H), 7.25 (s, 1H), 7.55-7.6 (br s, 1H), 7.8 (s, 1H), 9.3 (s, 1H); MS m/z 305.2 (M+H), 237.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 140.0-140.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.8-2.05 (br m, 2H), 2.5 (s, 3H), 3.3-3.5 (br m, 2H), 3.9-4.1 (m, 2H), 6.9 (m, 1H), 7.1-7.3 (br m, 5H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 7.75 (br s, 1H), 9.4 (s, 1H); MS m/z 307.2 (M+H), 239.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 165.0. 166.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.9-2.05 (m, 2H), 3.3-3.5 (br d, 2H), 3.95-4.05 (m, 2H), 6.85 (d, 1H), 7.15 (d, 1H), 7.6 (d, 1H), 7.7 (m, 2H), 8.1 (m, 2H), 8.3 (br s, 1H), 10.1 (br s, 1H); MS m/z 306.2 (M+H), 237.9 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 146.5-147.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.9-2.0 (m, 2H), 2.9 (s, 6H), 3.4 (m, 2H), 3.9-4.0 (m, 2H), 6.7 (m, 2H), 6.9 (s, 1H), 7.05-7.1 (m, 2H), 7.15 (s, 1H), 7.4 (br s, 1H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 9.2 (s, 1H); MS m/z 304.2 (M+H), 236.0 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 114.5-115.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.7-1.9 (m, 2H), 2.9-3.1 (m, 2H), 3.7 (2s, 6H), 3.9-4.0 (m, 2H), 6.1 (t, 1H), 6.7 (s, 2H), 6.8 (s, 1H), 7.15 (d, 2H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 8.2 (s, 1H); MS m/z 321.2 (M+H), 253.3 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point:: 150.5-151.5° C.
1H NMR δ 0.9 (d, 3H), 2.3-2.4 (m, 2H), 2.5 (s, 1H), 3.7 (d, 6H), 4.0-4.1 (br m, 1H), 4.15-4.25 (br m, 1H), 6.75-6.8 (m, 1H), 6.85 (m, 1H), 6.9-7.0 (m, 1H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.75 (s, 2H), 9.1 (s, 1H), 9.5 (s, 1H); MS m/z 335.6 (M+H), 267.1 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 155.0-157.5° C.
1H NMR δ 0.9 (d, 3H), 2.3-2.4 (m, 2H), 2.5 (s, 1H), 3.7 (d, 6H), 4.0-4.1 (br m, 1H), 4.15-4.25 (br m, 1H), 6.75-6.8 (m, 1H), 6.85 (m, 1H), 6.9-7.0 (m, 1H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.75 (s, 2H), 9.1 (s, 1H), 9.5 (s, 1H); MS m/z 335.4 (M+H), 267.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 166.5-168.5° C.
1H NMR δ 0.7-0.8 (br m, 2H), 1.85-1.9 (m, 1H), 2.15-2.2 (m, 1H), 2.2-2.3 (m, 1H), 3.4-3.5 (m, 1H), 3.7 (d, 6H), 4.2 (s, 1H), 4.95 (s, 1H), 6.75-6.8 (br m, 1H), 6.85-6.9 (br m, 1H), 7.0 (s, 1H), 7.5 (m, 1H), 7.6 (m, 1H), 7.7 (s, 0.5H), 7.8 (s, 0.5H), 8.85 (s, 0.5H), 9.1 (s, 0.5H), 9.35 (s, 0.5H), 9.45 (s, 0.5H); MS m/z 347.2 (M+H), 279.2 (M-C3H3N2), 137.5 (M-C9H13N4S.)
1H NMR δ 1.95-2.15 (m, 2H), 3.25-3.35 (m, 2H), 4.0-4.1 (t, 2H), 6.9 (s, 1H), 6.95-7.05 (t, 1H), 7.15-7.2 (m, 2H), 7.35-7.4 (d, 1H), 7.60-7.70 (m, 2H), 8.0-8.1 (br s, 1H); MS m/z 259.4 (M+H), 191.3 (M-C3H3N2.)
1H NMR 61.95-2.15 (m, 2H), 3.25-3.35 (m, 2H), 4.0-4.1 (t, 2H), 6.9 (s, 1H), 7.1-7.2 (d, 2H), 7.3-7.4 (d, 1H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.8 (s, 1H), 8.2 (s, 1H); MS m/z 293.3 (M+H), 225.3 (M-C3H3N2.)
1H NMR δ 1.9-2.05 (m, 2H), 3.2-3.3 (m, 2H), 3.7 (s, 3H), 4.0-4.1 (t, 2H), 6.7-6.8 (d, 1H), 6.9 (s, 1H), 7.15-7.2 (s, 1H), 7.2-7.3 (m, 2H), 7.65 (s, 1H), 7.8 (s, 1H); MS m/z 289.1 (M+H), 221.4 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 82.0-82.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.4-1.55 (d, 3H), 1.9-2.0 (m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (m, 2H), 3.85-3.95 (m, 2H), 4.0-4.1 (q, 1H), 6.8-6.9 (s, 1H), 7.1 (s, 1H), 7.15-7.2 (m, 1H), 7.2-7.3 (m, 2H), 7.35-7.4 (m, 2H), 7.55 (s, 1H), 10.1 (s, 1H); MS m/z 274.4 (M+H), 206.3 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 82.5-83.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.4-1.55 (d, 3H), 1.9-2.0 (m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (m, 2H), 3.85-3.95 (m, 2H), 4.0-4.1 (q, 1H), 6.8-6.9 (s, 1H), 7.1 (s, 1H), 7.15-7.2 (m, 1H), 7.2-7.3 (m, 2H), 7.35-7.4 (m, 2H), 7.55 (s, 1H), 10.1 (s, 1H); MS m/z 274.4 (M+H), 206.3 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 137.5-139.0° C.
1H NMR 61.55-1.75 (br m, 2H), 1.85-1.95 (br m, 2H), 2.4-2.5 (br m, 2H), 2.7-2.85 (br m, 2H), 3.3-3.5 (br m, 2H), 3.8 (m, 2H), 6.9 (s, 1H), 7.0 (s, 1H), 7.3 (m, 2H), 7.45 (s, 1H), 7.5 (m, 2H), 9.6 (t, 1H); MS m/z 334.3 (M+H), 266.1 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 140.0-141.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.5-1.65 (br m, 4H), 1.8-1.9 (m, 2H), 2.0-2.1 (m, 2H), 2.6 (m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (m, 2H), 3.7-3.8 (m, 2H), 6.85 (s, 1H), 7.0 (s, 1H), 7.35 (m, 2H), 7.4 (m, 2H), 7.5 (s, 1H), 9.4 (t, 1H); MS m/z 348.2 (M+H), 280.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 162.5-164.0° C.
1H NMR δ 1.2-1.3 (m, 1H), 1.35-1.5 (br m, 5H), 1.85-2.0 (br m, 4H), 2.4-2.6 (br m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (m, 2H), 3.7 (s, 3H), 3.8 (m, 2H), 6.8 (m, 3H), 7.0 (s, 1H), 7.3 (m, 2H), 7.5 (s, 1H), 9.2 (t, 1H); MS m/z 358.3 (M+H), 290.3 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point:: 129.0-129.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.0-1.1 (m, 2H), 1.5-1.6 (m, 2H), 1.9-2.0 (br m, 2H), 3.4-3.5 (m, 2H), 3.7 (s, 3H), 3.9 (m, 2H), 6.9 (m, 3H), 7.1 (s, 1H), 7.2-7.3 (m, 2H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 8.9 (br s, 1H); MS m/z 316.0 (M+H), 248.4 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point:: 128.0-128.5° C.
1H NMR δ 1.65-1.70 (m, 2H), 1.75-1.80 (m, 2H), 2.7-2.75 (m, 2H), 3.7 (s, 3H), 3.75 (s, 3H), 4.0-4.05 (t, 2H), 6.9-7.0 (m, 2H), 7.2 (s, 1H), 7.3 (d, 1H), 7.5 (s, 1H), 7.75 (s, 1H), 11.0 (s, 1H); MS m/z 320.2 (M+H), 252.2 (M-C3H3N2.)
melting point: 157.5-159.0° C.
1H NMR δ 3.7 (2 s, 6H), 3.8 (m, 2H), 4.2 (m, 2H), 6.7 (m, 1H), 6.85 (m, 1H), 6.9 (m, 2H), 7.15 (s, 1H), 7.5 (br s, 1H), 7.6 (s, 1H), 9.5 (s, 1H); MS m/z 307.2 (M+H), 239.1 (M-C3H3N2.)
The present application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/839,017, filed May 5, 2004, which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes to the extent permitted by law. The present application also claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application 60/468,014, filed May 5, 2003 via application Ser. No. 10/839,017. Provisional Application 60/468,014 also is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes to the extent permitted by law.
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60468014 | May 2003 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 10839017 | May 2004 | US |
| Child | 11685881 | Mar 2007 | US |
