Vapor treatment of lung nodules and tumors

Abstract

Systems and methods for treating a lesion in a lung of a patient are described. Embodiments can include navigating a vapor exit port of a vapor delivery catheter to an airway point near a lung region in which the lesion resides, delivering condensable vapor from the vapor delivery catheter along anatomic boundaries of the lung region, and creating a uniform field of necrosis in tissue around the lesion by allowing the condensable vapor to condense.

Description

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All publications and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND

Over 1.8 million people worldwide were diagnosed with lung cancer in 2012. In the US, approximately 400,000 individuals are living with lung cancer and 225,000 new cases are expected to be diagnosed in 2014, comprising 13% of all cancer diagnoses. Most patients with lung cancer are elderly. In 2010, 82% with lung cancer were older than 60. It is estimated that in the US, lung cancer care costs $12.1 billion. More males are living with lung cancer than women (66.8 and 49.2 per 100,000) in the U.S., however, this difference is converging.

The survival rate of lung cancer is much lower than the other leading cancer locations, with a five-year survival rate of 16.6% compared to 64.2% for colon, 89.2% for breast, and 99.2% for prostate. More than 50% of people with lung cancer die within one year of being diagnosed. This poor survival rate has been mainly attributed to the fact that by the time a person with lung cancer becomes symptomatic, the cancer has metastasized and is in the later stages.

Recent screening programs to detect and treat lung cancer earlier have helped to improve the prognosis of people with lung cancer. The National Lung Screening Trial demonstrated that screening with low-dose computed tomography (CT) reduces mortality by 20% in certain high risk populations. Screening finds nodules sooner where they are less likely to have metastasized.

Surgery is currently the treatment of choice for patients with early stage non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), which can often achieve cure through the resection alone. The aim with surgery is to remove the entire tumor including a margin, typically about 2 cm of normal tissue surrounding the tumor. Different surgical approaches are commonly used, such as wedge resection, segmentectomy, lobectomy, or pneumonectomy. Which technique is used depends on the nodule characteristics, the patient's physiological reserve, and the surgeon's skill. Many of these patients have significant comorbidities and are therefore at risk of morbidity, mortality and resultant high resource utilization. Additionally, the lungs are a frequent site of metastatic disease, in 20% of cases it is the only site. Especially in patients with oligometastatic disease, surgery is part of the conventional treatment strategy. Many of these patients have high comorbidities and are non-surgical candidates.

38% of patients undergoing a resection experience major complications, including arrhythmias, prolonged air leaks, prolonged chest tube drainage and infection. A study of 7,000 patients showed a mortality rate of 1.3% for lung resections in general and 3.2% for pneumonectomies. Successful surgery often is associated with a loss of exercise capacity in the range of 10-40%, which can significantly affect quality of life. Post-resection pain can persist for four years and occurs in approximately 30% of patients. 5% of patients experience severe disabling pain. All of these complications and risk of mortality and morbidity increase in older patients and patients with comorbidities.

CT-guided percutaneous ablation in the form of radiofrequency (RF) ablation, microwave ablation, or cryotherapy are being explored as an alternative method of treating these tumors in non-surgical patients. However, none of these techniques have been successfully adapted for bronchoscopic application. Among the challenges faced by these various energy based devices is the difficulty in navigating to and penetrating the lesion, as well as the ability to take a consistent margin. In addition, these approaches are relatively lengthy (10-60 minutes per energy application) and often lead to pneumothorax. Moreover, it is difficult to ablate the entire tumor or nodule, along with a tissue margin around the tumor or nodule, with these therapies.

Condensable vapor has been delivered to the region in and around the lungs for other therapeutic purposes. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 7,892,229 describes the injection of heated water vapor into a volume of the lung distal to an occluding balloon for the purpose of shrinking and collapsing the lung tissue to reduce lung volume. The therapy results in shrinkage of collagenous tissues in the airway walls, leading to fibrosis and permanent sealing of the treated airways. The '229 patent does not address the use of condensable vapor to treat tumors or nodules in the lung, and it does not disclose how one would use the described apparatus to treat lung tumors or nodules.

U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,913,698; 8,147,532; and 8,322,335 all describe the delivery of condensable vapor to the lung to treat COPD, tumors or nodules. None of these patents describes devices or therapies specifically tailored to treat lung tumors or nodules, and none identifies a vapor delivery protocol that causes tumor or nodule tissue to necrose without also causing charring and/or thermal fixing of the tissue in and around the tumor or nodule.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

An outpatient procedure performed by a bronchoscopist to treat lung tumors and nodules has the potential to improve mortality and morbidity, have less breathing impairment, lower costs, and improve quality of life as compared to surgery. A bronchoscopic technique could feasibly be used for treatment of early stage lung cancer in the same procedure as the diagnosis, further reducing the treatment impact on the patient.

For the purposes of this disclosure, “treatment” is an intervention aimed at changing the nature or character of tissue, including necrosing tissue, debulking tissue, and/or initiating an immune response directed toward tissue.

For the purposes of this disclosure, “lesion” means a tissue abnormality, such as a primary lung cancer tumor, a metastatic nodule, a pre-cancerous or possibly cancerous nodule.

The present invention relates to a lung therapy method specifically adapted to treat lesions in the lung, such as nodules and cancerous tumors. One aspect of the invention provides a method of treating a lesion in a lung of a patient. In some embodiments, the method includes the steps of navigating a vapor exit port of a vapor delivery catheter to an airway point near a lung region (e.g., lung subsegment or sub-subsegment) in which the lesion resides; delivering condensable vapor from the vapor delivery catheter along anatomic boundaries of the lung region; and creating a uniform field of necrosis in tissue around the lesion by allowing the condensable vapor to condense. The method may also include the step of isolating the lung region distal to the airway branching point prior to delivering the vapor. Allowing the vapor to condense may also cause necrosis of the lesion.

In some embodiments, the method creates a uniform field of necrosis in tissue around the lesion without charring or thermally fixing the tissue. In some embodiments, 270-450 calories of energy are transferred from the condensable vapor to the tissue.

The method and system of this invention provide a minimally invasive bronchoscopic treatment for ablating lesions in the lung of patients with primary lung cancer or metastases. The potential benefits of this approach over other interventional approaches are:

Minimally invasive (not percutaneous);

Delivery of therapy to the parenchyma via the bronchi (no need to pierce nodule);

Compatible with peripheral navigation systems;

Outside-in treatment; ablation includes margin similar to resection;

Treatment includes all of the lesion-related lung segment(s) but respects natural anatomical boundaries; and

Shorter procedure times.

A method of treating a lesion in a lung of a patient is provided, the method comprising navigating a vapor exit port of a vapor delivery catheter to an airway point near a lung region in which the lesion resides, delivering condensable vapor from the vapor delivery catheter along anatomic boundaries of the lung region, and creating a uniform field of necrosis in tissue around the lesion by allowing the condensable vapor to condense.

In one embodiment, the lung region is a subsegment of the lung. In another embodiment, the lung region is a sub-subsegment of the lung.

In some embodiments, the creating step comprises creating a uniform field of necrosis in tissue around the lesion without charring the tissue. In other embodiments, the creating step comprises creating a uniform field of necrosis in tissue around the lesion without thermally fixing the tissue. In additional embodiments, the creating step further comprises transferring 270-450 calories of energy from the condensable vapor to the tissue.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises isolating the lung region distal to the airway branching point prior to the delivering step.

A method of treating a lesion in a lung of a patient is also provided, the method comprising delivering condensable vapor from a vapor delivery catheter directly into parenchyma of a lung region in which the lesion resides, and creating a uniform field of necrosis in tissue around the lesion by allowing the condensable vapor to condense.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the claims that follow. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of method of this invention.

FIGS. 2A-B show components of a vapor generation and delivery system that may be used to practice the lung therapies of this invention.

FIG. 3 is a photograph showing uniform necrosis in a lung subsegment of a pig following treatment along the method of this invention.

FIG. 4 is a photograph of an ex vivo human lung showing an ablated tissue boundary containing a tumor following treatment along the method of this invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The method of the invention is illustrated in FIG. 1. After identification of a tumor, nodule or other lesion 10 in the lung, water vapor is delivered via catheter 12 to an airway that ventilates the region, i.e., the parenchyma surrounding a lesion. Catheter 12 may be advanced through a bronchoscope (not shown) having, e.g., a 2.0 mm or larger working channel. A balloon 14 in the airway proximal to the lesion isolates that portion of the airway (here, a sub-subsegment 16 of the lung) so that the water vapor will extend only distally from the balloon. The water vapor follows the channels of the lung that naturally transport gas (inhaled air, exhaled carbon dioxide) and condenses to deliver a concentrated amount of thermal energy to the lung tissue in the isolated region (e.g., subsegment, sub-subsegment) during its phase change from gas to liquid. This application of thermal energy causes an acute injury to the tissues in the isolated lung, resulting in necrosis in the ablation zone 18.

Because of the unique ability of this thermal energy in gas form to convect through the natural airspaces, the entire parenchyma fed by the bronchus is affected. However, because the gas is not readily transported to the parenchyma across anatomical boundaries, neighboring parenchyma and other tissue is minimized. Ablation to neighboring tissue occurs only through conduction, which is limited to approximately 1 mm in the treatment time delivered, because of the short duration of the treatment. Thus, the ablative effects are limited by anatomic boundaries to the ablation zone 18. The most effective treatment extends the necrotic effect to the boundaries of the isolated lung region.

Ablation of the parenchyma surrounding a lesion causes cell death, thrombosis of the arteries and veins, and destruction of the lymphatic system. As a result of this uniform field of necrosis, healing can only occur from the “outside of the field in” because all transport channels to the “inside of the field” are destroyed. As a result, any portions of a lesion within that field that were not directly ablated by the condensing vapor will necrose over time as a result of the ablation of the tissue adjacent to the lesion and the resulting ischemia of the region.

Because the architectural structure of the ablated tissue is largely left intact, acute changes are minimal. The tissue is not thermally fixed and can therefore be reabsorbed during the natural healing process, including the lesion itself. This targeted bronchoscopic ablation of lung lesions completely destroys lung lesions in a quick and minimally invasive manner with limited effect on breathing mechanics and neighboring tissue. In addition, because of the limited damage to the tissue in the isolate region, scar tissue formation is minimized to reduce false positives in later X-ray or CT images of the lung region.

FIGS. 2A-B show components of a vapor generation and delivery system for use with this invention. The system may include a vapor generator 20 with an input mechanism 22 (such as, e.g., a graphic user interface) to enter control parameters (e.g., power level, water flow rate and treatment duration). The system connects to catheter 12 via a connector 42 to deliver vapor from the generator 20 to the patient.

In the illustrated embodiment, catheter 12 has a shaft 40 extending from a hub 42 through compliant balloon 14 to a distal opening. Catheter 12 has separate lumens for the water vapor and for the balloon inflation fluid. In some embodiments, balloon 14 is formed from silicone and can be expanded to occlude a 10 mm diameter airway.

The system shown in FIGS. 2A-B may be used to treat lesions and surrounding tissue in an isolated lung region using condensable water vapor. In some embodiments, the power, water flow and treatment time may be selected by the user via the user interface on the generator. Exemplary settings for treatment of lung tumors and lung nodules are shown in Table 1 below:

TABLE 1
Energy	Power Setting	Flow Setting	Time
270 ± 20 calories	600 watts	9,000 μl/min	8 seconds
330 ± 20 calories	700 watts	10,500 μl/min	8 seconds
390 ± 20 calories	800 watts	12,000 μl/min	8 seconds
450 ± 20 calories	900 watts	13,500 μl/min	8 seconds

Delivery of 270-450 calories of energy to the isolate lung region over 8 seconds will provide uniform tissue necrosis in that region along the anatomic boundaries of the isolate airway.

In some embodiments, prior to treatment, the patient's lung will be imaged in a high resolution CT scan. The images may be evaluated using CT 3D reconstruction software (such as, e.g., the Broncus LungPoint system, the Covidien® superDimension™ navigation system or the Veran Medical Technologies SPiNView® system) to develop a treatment plan, including optimal treatment locations that will target lesions and the parenchyma around them. This treatment plan will take into account the navigational accessibility of the bronchoscope and vapor catheter. Similar software may also be used during the ablation procedure to assist with navigating the vapor catheter to the target locations by, e.g., manually matching the image reconstruction to live bronchoscopic camera images.

Example 1

The ability to create a uniform field of tissue necrosis in a lung segment (including lung subsegments and sub-subsegments) was examined in animal tests. Of routinely studied large animals, the pig lung is the most similar to the human lung in terms of airway diameters and volumes. However, it differs from human lungs with respect to the absence of collateral ventilation between sub-segmental regions. This lack of collateral ventilation in the pig lung creates a closed path which restricts venting of the segment during vapor delivery.

A total of 11 Yorkshire pigs were used in this study, including 3 females and 8 castrated males. The average weight at the time of treatment was 56.6 kg (range: 46.4-67 kg). For each treatment, a bronchoscope was used to navigate to the segment, the catheter described above with reference to FIG. 2 was placed in the airway under visual guidance via the bronchoscope, and the balloon was inflated to seal the airway.

After the end of the survival period, the pigs were sacrificed and a limited necropsy was performed on each animal. The isolated lungs were perfused with saline via the trachea in order to stiffen the tissue and cross-sectional slices were made of each treated segment. Photographs of each cross-section were taken, photographed, and gross findings noted. The tissue cross-sections were fixed in formalin and representative sections of treated lung parenchyma as well as sections from a control untreated segment were placed in tissue cassettes for tissue processing. The sections were paraffin embedded and sectioned, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stain.

The primary endpoint for efficacy of treatment was the presence of uniform necrosis of the isolated lung region, which was assessed both by gross pathology as well as by histopathology. FIG. 3 is a photograph showing uniform necrosis (the dark area marked “necrotic tissue”) in subsegment LV4 of one of the pigs.

Table 2 shows the energy delivered in to an isolated pig lung segment during a treatment and the percentage of the treated segments where uniform necrosis of the lung tissue was achieved.

TABLE 2
TABLE 2: The number and percentage of treated
segments with uniform necrosis in pig lung per
treatment power as assessed by gross pathology
	Energy	# of	Uniform Necrosis
	(calories)	treatments*	N	% of treatments
	125 ± 20	6	0	0
	270 ± 20	27**	12	44
	330 ± 20	16	14	88
	360 ± 20	14	11	79
	390 ± 20	12	9	75

These data show that, in the energy range studied (125-390 calories), this technique resulted in tissue necrosis in the isolated lung region. The uniformity of necrosis varied with treatment power, with improving uniformity at higher energy levels up to a point (here, 330 calories), and energy levels beyond that point did not improve uniformity of necrosis outcomes.

Example 2

The system described above with respect to FIG. 2 was used to deliver 57 treatments to 6 ex vivo pig lungs at 3 different energy levels. The uniformity of the collagen denaturation was characterized to establish potential for efficacy at various energy levels. Each treatment to the ex vivo tissue causes collagen denaturation. It takes more heat to denature collagen than it does to permanently kill living tissue. Therefore collagen denaturation is a suitable marker for tissue that would be non-vital after treatment if it were in vivo.

The collagen denaturation boundary due to ablation was characterized to be either well-defined or not well-defined. Vapor is constrained by the anatomy to which it is delivered. A well-defined ablation boundary includes the pleural surface and has sharp edges that follow segmental divisions. The best treatment result is one that has a uniform effect and has a distinct boundary that reaches the pleural surface; a distinct boundary suggests that the entire sub-segment was affected by the vapor. Table 3 shows the primary endpoints for all treatments delivered.

TABLE 3
Energy	Uniform	Ablation
(calories)	Ablation	Boundary
270 ± 20	29/43 (67%)	26/43 (60%)
330 ± 20	8/8 (100%)	8/8 (100%)
390 ± 20	4/6 (67%)	4/6 (67%)

The frequency of achieving a completely uniform effect in ex-vivo porcine was 67% at the lowest energy level tested of 270 calories. The frequency of achieving a well-defined boundary at 270 calories was 60%. This result is very similar to what was found in pig in vivo where 57% of comparable treatments achieved a completely uniform effect. (Boundary was not characterized in vivo). At higher energy levels, frequency of uniform ablation with well-defined boundary appeared to increase.

Example 3

The system described above with respect to FIG. 2 was used to deliver 63 treatments to 5 ex vivo canine lungs at 5 different energy levels. The uniformity of the collagen denaturation was characterized to establish potential for efficacy at various energy levels. Ablation uniformity (collagen denaturation due to ablation characterized to be either homogenous or to have degrees of heterogeneity) and ablation boundary (collagen denaturation boundary due to ablation was characterized to be either well-defined or not well-defined). Vapor is constrained by the anatomy it is delivered to. A well-defined ablation boundary includes the pleural surface and has sharp edges that follow segmental divisions. An energy range of 125 to 450 calories at 8 seconds was evaluated. Table 4 summarizes the primary endpoints for all treatments delivered.

TABLE 4
Energy	Uniform	Ablation
(calories)	Ablation	Boundary
125 ± 20	9/10 (90%)	4/10 (40%)
270 ± 20	13/13 (100%)	13/13 (100%)
330 ± 20	9/9 (100%)	9/9 (100%)
390 ± 20	15/15 (100%)	15/15 (100%)
450 ± 20	15/15 (100%)	15/15 (100%)

These data show that the frequency of achieving a completely uniform effect was very consistent in the energy range of 270 to 450 calories with 100% of treatments achieving uniform effect. At the very low end of the energy range (125 calories), 90% of all treatments achieved completely uniform effect. Ablation boundary also had 100% achieving full boundary in the range 270 to 450 calories and 40% at the lowest energy level of 125 calories. These fields of ablation followed anatomical boundaries despite the presence of collateral ventilation.

Example 4

The system described above with respect to FIG. 2 was used to deliver 135 treatments to 10 ex vivo human lungs at 5 different energy levels. The 10 ex vivo human lungs treated in the study included normal lungs, lungs with emphysema, lungs with primary lung cancer, and lungs with metastatic lung cancer. Collagen denaturation in the tissue and tissue destruction was characterized to evaluated energy delivery efficacy and potential safety issues. Results were used to establish feasibility of the technique in human tissue; demonstrate the ability to create a uniform field of ablation around lung lesions; evaluate for other unexpected effects; and evaluate effects across an energy range. As in earlier studies, ablation uniformity and ablation boundary were the primary endpoints. Table 5 summarizes the endpoints for single 8 second treatments at different energy levels. FIG. 4 is a photograph of one of the ex vivo lungs showing an ablated tissue boundary containing a tumor.

TABLE 5
Energy	Uniform	Ablation
(calories)	Ablation	Boundary
125 ± 20	2/3 (67%)	1/3 (33%)
270 ± 20	15/28 (54%)	13/28 (46%)
330 ± 20	26/36 (72%)	24/36 (67%)
390 ± 20	22/25 (88%)	17/25 (68%)
450 ± 20	14/15 (93%)	13/15 (87%)

Table 6 summarizes the frequency of achieving a uniform ablation correlated with the diameter of the airway at the point of isolation of the treated lung region.

TABLE 6
Energy
(calories)	2.0 mm	2.5 mm	3.0 mm	3.5 mm	4.0 mm
125 ± 20			1/1 (100%)		1/2 (50%)
270 ± 20	0/1 (0%)	1/4 (25%)	10/15 (67%)		4/8 (50%)
330 ± 20		1/1 (100%)	19/26 (73%)	3/3 (100%)	3/6 (50%)
390 ± 20		1/1 (100%)	16/18 (89%)		5/6 (83%)
450 ± 20		1/1 (100%)	5/6 (83%)	1/1 (100%)	7/7 (100%)

Table 7 summarizes the frequency of achieving a uniform ablation correlated with bronchus generation.

TABLE 7
Energy
(calories)	2nd	3rd	4th	5th	6th
125 ± 20
270 ± 20		2/6 (33%)	7/9 (78%)	1/1 (100%)
330 ± 20	5/6 (83%)	14/20 (70%)	6/8 (75%)	1/1 (100%)
390 ± 20	3/4 (75%)	8/10 (80%)	3/3 (100%)		1/1 (100%)
450 ± 20	3/3 (100%)	7/8 (88%)	4/4 (100%)

These data show that the frequency of achieving completely uniform thermal effect with a clear boundary increased with energy. Smaller airway diameters at higher bronchus generations also achieved higher rates of treatment uniformity and clear boundaries.

While the preceding discussion focused on the delivery of vapor to the lungs as primary treatment, vapor therapy can also be used as an adjunct or adjuvant to other therapies to, e.g., improve the efficacy of another therapy modality (by, for example, stiffening the tissue through collagen denaturization), improve the outcome of the overall intervention, delay the timing of another intervention, etc.

In some embodiments of the invention, vapor may be delivered directly into the parenchyma via a catheter, needle or other conduit using, e.g., approaches described in U.S. 2013/0267939. In this embodiment, as in the earlier embodiments, delivery of the condensable vapor into the parenchyma creates a uniform field of necrosis without charring or thermally fixing the tissue.

While the invention has been described in terms of several embodiments, those skilled in the art will recognize that the invention is not limited to the embodiments described, can be practiced with modification and alteration within the spirit and scope of the appended claims. The description is thus to be regarded as illustrative instead of limiting.

Claims

1. A method of treating a lesion in a lung of a patient, the method comprising: navigating a vapor exit port of a vapor delivery catheter along an airway and to a point near a lung region in which the lesion resides, and in which the lung region can be isolated from a portion of the airway, wherein the lung region comprises a lung segment, subsegment or sub-subsegment having segmental boundaries encompassing both the lesion and healthy tissue surrounding the lesion and extending to the segmental boundaries; delivering condensable vapor from the exit port of the vapor delivery catheter for a first treatment time into said lung region sufficient to create a uniform field of necrosis in the lesion, the healthy tissue around the lesion and along said segmental boundaries by allowing the condensable vapor to condense; and determining, prior to the step of delivering, a first amount of energy to cause said uniform field of necrosis in the healthy tissue around the lesion, and to cause a well-defined ablation boundary between the uniform field of necrosis in the healthy tissue around the lesion and healthy non-targeted tissue along the segmental boundaries; and wherein the determining step is based on an airway diameter at said point.

2. The method of claim 1 wherein the lung region is a subsegment of the lung.

3. The method of claim 1 wherein the lung region is a sub-subsegment of the lung.

4. The method of claim 1 wherein the delivering step comprises creating the uniform field of necrosis in healthy tissue around the lesion without charring this healthy tissue.

5. The method of claim 1 wherein the delivering step comprises creating the uniform field of necrosis in healthy tissue around the lesion without thermally fixing this healthy tissue.

6. The method of claim 1 wherein the delivering step comprises transferring 270-450 calories of energy from the condensable vapor to the lesion and healthy tissue around the lesion.

7. The method of claim 6 wherein the first treatment time is 8 seconds.

8. The method of claim 1 further comprising isolating the lung region from the portion of the airway at said point by expanding a balloon in the airway at said point.

9. The method of claim 1 wherein the first amount of energy is further correlated with bronchus generation.

10. The method of claim 1 wherein the first amount of energy ranges from 125 to 330 calories.

11. The method of claim 1 wherein the step of delivering limits a depth of ablation of neighboring healthy non-targeted tissue to approximately 1 mm from the well-defined ablation boundary.

12. A method of treating a lesion in a lung of a patient, the method comprising: navigating a vapor exit port of a vapor delivery catheter along an airway and to an isolation point near a lung sub-segment in which the lesion resides, and in which the lung sub-segment can be isolated from a portion of the airway, the lung sub-segment having segmental divisions encompassing both the lesion and tissue surrounding the lesion; delivering condensable vapor from the exit port of the vapor delivery catheter into said lung sub-segment sufficient to create a uniform ablation in tissue around the lesion and along said segmental divisions; determining, prior to the step of delivering, a correlated first amount of energy sufficient to cause (a) said uniform ablation in tissue around the lesion and along said segmental divisions and (b) a distinct collagen denaturation boundary that follows the segmental divisions; and wherein the first amount of energy is based on diameter of the airway at the point of isolation of the lung subsegment.

13. The method of claim 12, wherein the first amount of energy is further correlated with bronchus generation.

14. The method of claim 12, wherein the boundary includes pleural surfaces.

15. The method of claim 12, wherein the step of delivering limits a depth of ablation of healthy non-targeted tissue to approximately 1 mm from the distinct collagen denaturation boundary.

16. The method of claim 12, wherein the first amount of energy ranges from 270 to 450 calories.

17. The method of claim 16, wherein the step of delivering has a duration of 8 seconds.