Patent Grant
9701719
The sequence listing that is contained in the file named “CLFR.P0397US_ST25.txt”, which is 99 KB (as measured in Microsoft Windows®) and was created on Sep. 26, 2013, is filed herewith by electronic submission and is incorporated by reference herein.
1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates generally to the field of molecular biology and virology. More particularly, it concerns Chikungunya polypeptides and viruses that are attenuated in mammalian hosts.
2. Description of Related Art
Chikungunya virus (ChikV is a member of the Togaviridae family; genus Alphavirus (Khan et al., 2002) and is pathogenic to humans. ChikV is an arthropod borne virus (arbovirus) spread by the bite of an aedene mosquito. As with all alphaviruses its genome is composed of a small ˜11 Kb plus polarity single-stranded RNA. The genome encodes 3 structural proteins, E1, E2, and C and 4 nonstructural proteins nsP1-4. As a member of the Togaviruses these viruses are enveloped and as arboviruses they contain a membrane envelope derived from the insect or vertebrate host. The alphavirus genus contains 29 known species which cause encephalitis, fever, and/or arthralgia.
ChikV was first isolated from the blood of a febrile patient in Tanzania in 1953 where the virus was endemic (Pialoux et al., 2007). Outbreaks occur repeatedly in west, central, and southern Africa and have caused several human epidemics in those areas since that time. However, ChikV is a re-emerging pathogenic virus and is now also endemic in south east Asia (see, e.g., the world wide web at searo.who.int/index.htm). Recently, ChikV spread from Asia and the Indian Ocean to Italy (Rezza et al. 2007; Mavalankar et al. 2008). Of the two strain lineages of ChikV, the African; remains enzootic by cycling between mosquitoes and monkeys but the Asian strain is transmitted directly between mosquitoes and humans. This cycle of transmission may have allowed the virus to become more pathogenic as the reservoir host was eliminated (Powers et al., 2000).
In humans, ChikV causes a debilitating disease characterized by fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, rash, muscle pain and joint pain; the symptoms commonly associated with Dengue virus infection (with the exception of the arthralgia). Incubation can be 2-12 days, but most commonly 3-7 days with “silent” infections occurring with unknown frequency (WHO, Weekly epidemiological record. 2007). ChikV can be transmitted from mother to child (Ramful et al. 2007) and can produce chronic persisting symptoms including crippling arthralgia, encephalitis and myocarditis (rare) (Paul et al. 2011). ChikV epidemics from 2004-2011 have resulted in 1.4-6.5 million reported cases, with imported cases to 40 countries (Suhrbier et al. 2012). Aedes aegypti is the primary vector of ChikV, but recent outbreaks, which involved mortalities, have been propagated through the Aedes albopictus mosquito (Mavalankar et al. 2008; Dubrulle et al. 2009). Importantly, this mosquito vector has spread to 12 European countries as well as to the Australian continent (Johnson et al. 2008). Despite significant morbidity and mortality associated with ChikV infections and its growing prevalence and geographic distribution there is currently no vaccine or antiviral for ChikV approved for human use (Barrett et al. 2009).
Embodiments of the invention concern recombinant Chikungunya virus E2 polypeptides comprising amino acid deletions in the transmembrane domain. For example, a recombinant E2 polypeptide comprising the deletion can be efficiently expressed on insect cell membranes, but cannot be efficiently expressed in mammalian cell membranes. Accordingly, a recombinant Chikungunya virus comprising a deleted E2 of the embodiments efficiently replicates in insect cells, but inefficiently replicate in mammalian cells and are therefore highly attenuated relative to mammals.
Accordingly, in a first embodiment, there is provided a recombinant polypeptide wherein the polypeptide comprises an amino acid sequence at least 85% identical to a wild type Chikungunya virus E2 polypeptide and comprises a deletion in the transmembrane domain (TMD). In some aspects, the recombinant polypeptide is at least 90% identical to a Chikungunya virus E2 polypeptide from the West African strain 37997 (SEQ ID NO:1), India isolate RGCB699-09 (SEQ ID NO:9) or Maritius isolate BNI1446 (SEQ ID NO:11). In some aspects, a recombinant polypeptide is at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95% or 96% identical to SEQ ID NO:1, 9 or 11. In preferred aspects a deletion in TMD according to the embodiments is a deletion of 8-11 amino acids in the TMD (which corresponds to amino acid positions 365-390 of SEQ ID NO:1). For example, the deletion can be a deletion of 8, 9, 10 or 11 amino acids in the TMD.
In certain specific aspects, a recombinant polypeptide of the embodiments comprises a deletion of 9 amino acids in the TMD. For example, the polypeptide can comprise a deletion of the amino acids corresponding to amino acid positions 372-380, 374-382 or 373-381 of SEQ ID NO: 1. Examples of such polypeptide include, without limitation, polypeptides comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:5, SEQ ID NO:7 or a sequence at least 90% identical to the foregoing sequences. In a further aspect, a recombinant polypeptide of the embodiments comprises a deletion of 10 amino acids in the TMD. For example, the polypeptide can comprise a deletion of the amino acids corresponding to amino acid positions 372-381, 374-383 or 373-382 of SEQ ID NO:1. Examples of such a polypeptide include, without limitation, polypeptides comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:15, SEQ ID NO:17, SEQ ID NO:19 or a sequence at least 90% identical to the foregoing sequences.
In a further embodiment there is provided a polynucleotide molecule encoding a recombinant Chikungunya virus E2 polypeptide of the embodiments. For example, the polynucleotide can comprise a sequence at least 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96% or 97% identical to a Chikungunya virus E2 coding sequence from the West African strain 37997 (SEQ ID NO:2), India isolate RGCB699-09 (SEQ ID NO:10) or Maritius isolate BNI1446 (SEQ ID NO:12). Thus, in some specific aspects, a polynucleotide of the embodiments comprises a sequence at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% to SEQ ID NO:4; SEQ ID NO:6; SEQ ID NO:8; SEQ ID NO:16; SEQ ID NO:18; or SEQ ID NO:20 (e.g., a sequence 100% identical to any of the foregoing sequences). A polynucleotide of the embodiments can be a DNA or RNA sequence, such as a Chikungunya virus E2 genomic RNA.
In still a further embodiment there is provided a host cell comprising a polypeptide or a polynucleotide of the embodiments. For example, the host cell can be a eukaryotic or prokaryotic cell. In certain aspects, the host cell is an insect cell, such as a Spodoptera frugiperda cell. Thus, in some aspects, a culture of insect cells (e.g., SF9 cells) is provided wherein the cells comprise a polypeptide and/or polynucleotide of the embodiments.
In still yet a further embodiment there is provided a recombinant virus particle comprising a polypeptide or polynucleotide of the embodiments. For example, in certain aspects, the viral genome comprises a polynucleotide sequence of the embodiments. In some aspects, a viral particle of the embodiments can be defined as a live attenuated Chikungunya virus. In further aspects, a recombinant virus comprises at least one additional attenuating mutation. For example, the additional attenuating mutation can be a deletion, insertion or substitution of one or more nucleotides in the viral genome. In certain aspects, the recombinant virus is adapted for growth insect cell, such as a virus that have been passaged 10 or more times in an insect cell line. In still yet further aspects a recombinant virus of the embodiments is inactivated or partially inactivated, for example by treatment with a chemical (e.g., formalin), with heat or with radiation.
As outlined above, in some aspects, a recombinant virus according to the embodiments can comprise one ore more additional attenuating mutations. For example, in some aspects, a Chikungunya virus coding sequence can comprise an internal ribosomal entry site of a encephalomyelocarditis virus substituted for the sequence encoding the 5′ UTR of the viral subgenomic RNA (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Publn. No. 20110052634, incorporated herein by reference).
In yet a further embodiment there is provided a method of producing a recombinant virus of the embodiments comprising (a) infecting a host cell with a recombinant virus and (b) collecting progeny virus from the host cell. In further aspects, a method of the embodiments can comprise, expressing viral genome (e.g., a genome comprising a polynucleotide of the embodiments) in a host cell and collecting virus particles produced by the host cell. In certain aspects the host cell is an insect cell, such an SF9 cell.
In still further embodiments there is provided an immunogenic composition comprising a recombinant polypeptide, polynucleotide or virus particle of the embodiments in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In preferred aspects, an immunogenic composition comprises a recombinant Chikungunya virus of the embodiments (e.g., a live attenuated Chikungunya virus). In further aspects, an immunogenic composition further comprises additional components such as an adjuvant, an immunomodulator, a preservative or a stabilizer. Thus, in some aspects, a composition is provided for use in preventing the symptoms of a Chikungunya virus infection, the composition comprising a recombinant virus particle of the embodiments in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
In yet still a further embodiment there is provided a method of producing an immune response in a subject comprising administering an immunogenic composition of embodiments to the subject. For example, a method of the embodiments can be further defined as a method for preventing symptoms (e.g., fever, rash or virus-associated arthritis) of a Chikungunya virus infection in a subject. In still further aspects, a method can be defined as a method for reducing the probability of a Chikungunya virus infection in a subject. In certain aspects, a subject is a subject who is at risk of acquiring a Chikungunya virus infection, such as a subject who lives in an endemic area or who lives in or has visited a region known to have circulating Chikungunya virus. In further aspects, a subject is a subject that is at risk for having severe symptoms from Chikungunya virus infection such as a subject who is immunosuppressed, elderly or who has arthritis. In preferred aspects, the subject is a human subject.
In further aspects, an immunogenic composition of the embodiments can be administered to a subject orally, intravenously, intramuscularly, intraperitoneally, intradermally or subcutaneously. For example, in some aspects, the composition is administered to a subject by an injection, e.g., an intramuscular or subcutaneous injection. In some cases, the composition is administered multiple times, such as 2, 3, 4 or 5 times. In certain cases, each administration is separated by a period of days, weeks, months or years.
Embodiments discussed in the context of methods and/or compositions of the invention may be employed with respect to any other method or composition described herein. Thus, an embodiment pertaining to one method or composition may be applied to other methods and compositions of the invention as well.
As used herein the terms “encode” or “encoding” with reference to a nucleic acid are used to make the invention readily understandable by the skilled artisan; however, these terms may be used interchangeably with “comprise” or “comprising” respectively.
As used herein the specification, “a” or “an” may mean one or more. As used herein in the claim(s), when used in conjunction with the word “comprising”, the words “a” or “an” may mean one or more than one.
The use of the term “or” in the claims is used to mean “and/or” unless explicitly indicated to refer to alternatives only or the alternatives are mutually exclusive, although the disclosure supports a definition that refers to only alternatives and “and/or.” As used herein “another” may mean at least a second or more.
Throughout this application, the term “about” is used to indicate that a value includes the inherent variation of error for the device, the method being employed to determine the value, or the variation that exists among the study subjects.
Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description.
The following drawings form part of the present specification and are included to further demonstrate certain aspects of the present invention. The invention may be better understood by reference to one or more of these drawings in combination with the detailed description of specific embodiments presented herein.
I. The Present Invention
ChikV is a re-emerging human pathogen that has now established itself in south east Asia as well as Africa and has recently spread to Europe (Rezza et al. 2007; Mavalankar et al. 2008). In humans, ChikV causes a debilitating disease characterized by fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, rash, muscle pain and joint pain. Human ChikV epidemics from 2004-2011 have resulted in 1.4-6.5 million reported cases, including a number of deaths. However, despite significant morbidity and mortality associated with ChikV infection and its growing prevalence and geographic distribution there is currently no vaccine or antiviral for ChikV approved for human use (Barrett et al. 2009). Thus, ChikV antigens and attenuated viruses are desperately needed for development of vaccines.
Embodiments of the invention address this need by providing deleted ChikV E2 polypeptides that render the virus highly attenuated in mammalian hosts. In particular, the studies detailed below demonstrate that ChikV expressing mutant E2 glycoproteins comprising a deletion of 9 or 10 amino acids in the transmembrane domain (e.g., the TM17 mutants) are highly attenuated and can serve as the basis for viral vaccine compositions. Importantly, large deletions, such as those studied, do not revert in vitro or in vivo (Smith et al. 2012). Moreover, though highly attenuated in mammalian cells, the viruses can be grown to near wild type titers in insect cells, thereby allowing for efficient production of vaccine strains. When injected into test animals the attenuated viruses were found to be safe, in that they did not persist in the blood or joints of the infected animals. The ChikV TM17-2 mutant, for example, did not produce any swelling at the site of injection, produced little if any inflammation in the foot/ankle or quad and did not persist in any tissue tested pre-challenge. Upon challenge of animals exposed to the mutant viruses with WT ChikV the animals were found to be protected from infection. In particular, ChikV TM17-2 provided significant protection against infection even as compared to TM 17-1 and WT ChikV. Assay of the serum, foot/ankle and quad post challenge did not detect any virus for mice infected with TM17-2. Considering that infection of humans with an arbovirus confers lifelong immunity, the ChikV TM17-2 protected better even than infection with WTChikV which allowed a transient infection post challenge.
The mutant viruses described here provide ideal vaccine candidates. First, they are high attenuated as demonstrated by their reduced replication efficiency in mammalian cells and the lack of persistence and symptoms of infection upon introduction into test animals. Second because of the large deletions that are used, the chance of reversion to wild type has been minimized. Most importantly, the viruses produce a robust and protective immune response. In fact certain mutant viruses such as TM17-2 produced an immune response that provides even greater protection that infection of animals with wild type virus. Together these studies have identified highly attenuated, non-reactogenic, and efficacious strains of ChikV which can (and should) be further developed for use in human vaccines.
II. Reference to the Sequence Listing
The following sequences are provided in the sequence listing and may be used in accordance with certain aspects of the embodiments.
The recombinant polypeptides and viruses of certain aspects of the embodiments are based on deletion mutations in the transmembrane domains of membrane glycoproteins of ChikV, in particular the ChikV EZ TMD. Like other viruses, the E2 membrane glycoprotein has a hydrophobic membrane-spanning domain which anchors the protein in the membrane bilayer (Rice et al., 1982). The membrane-spanning domain needs to be long enough to reach from one side of the bilayer to the other in order to hold or anchor the proteins in the membrane. Unlike mammalian cell membranes, the membranes of insect cells contain no cholesterol (Clayton 1964; Mitsuhashi et al., 1983). Because insects have no cholesterol in their membranes, the insect-generated viral membrane will be thinner in cross section than the viral membranes generated from mammals. Consequently, the membrane-spanning domains of proteins integrated into insect membranes do not need to be as long as those integrated into the membranes of mammals. Accordingly, as demonstrated for the first time here ChikV E2 polypeptides with a 8-11 amino acid deletion in their TMD result in viruses tat can replicate efficiently in insect cells but show reduced replication in mammalian cells that comprise thicker membranes. Further methods of modifying the a glycoprotein trans membrane domain are provided for instance in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,306,401; 6,589,533; 7,128,915 and 7,335,363, each incorporated herein by reference.
In certain embodiments recombinant viruses or polypeptides according to the current embodiments may comprise two or more host range mutations or additionally comprise other mutations such as attenuating mutations, mutations to increase immunogenicity or viral stability or any mutations that may be used for vaccine production and that are current known in the art.
In additional aspects, recombinant polynucleotide, polypeptides or viruses of the embodiments can comprise additional deletions, substitutions or insertions (or amino acids or nucleic acids). For example, sequences from other ChikV strains can be incorporated into the recombinant molecules of the embodiments. Thus, in some aspects amino acid or nucleic acid changes can be made in molecules by substituting the position for a corresponding position from another strain of virus. Similarly, in the case of amino acid substitution, changes can be made with amino acids having a similar hydrophilicity. The importance of the hydropathic amino acid index in conferring interactive biologic function on a protein is generally understood in the art (Kyte & Doolittle, 1982). It is accepted that the relative hydropathic character of the amino acid contributes to the secondary structure of the resultant protein, which in turn defines the interaction of the protein with other molecules, for example, enzymes, substrates, receptors, DNA, antibodies, antigens, and the like. As detailed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,554,101, the following hydrophilicity values have been assigned to amino acid residues: arginine (+3.0); lysine (+3.0); aspartate (+3.0±1); glutamate (+3.0±1); serine (+0.3); asparagine (+0.2); glutamine (+0.2); glycine (0); threonine (−0.4); proline (−0.5±1); alanine (0.5); histidine −0.5); cysteine (−1.0); methionine (−1.3); valine (−1.5); leucine (−1.8); isoleucine (−1.8); tyrosine (2.3); phenylalanine (−2.5); tryptophan (−3.4). These values can be used as a guide and thus substitution of amino acids whose hydrophilicity values are within ±2 are preferred, those that are within ±1 are particularly preferred, and those within ±0.5 are even more particularly preferred. Thus, any of the E2 polypeptides described herein may be modified by the substitution of an amino acid, for different, but homologous amino acid with a similar hydrophilicity value. Amino acids with hydrophilicities within +/−1.0, or +/−0.5 points are considered homologous.
IV. Viral Vaccines
Certain aspects of the present invention are drawn to a method of producing an immunogenic composition or viral vaccine from genetically engineered membrane-enveloped viruses, such as Chikungunya virus, for vaccination of mammals, comprising the steps of introducing the engineered virus into insect cells and allowing the virus to replicate in the insect cells to produce a viral vaccine.
Certain aspects of the embodiments concern host-range mutant viruses. It is contemplated in certain aspects of the invention that one, two, three, four or more of these types of mutations can be combined, for example, to formulate a tetravalent vaccine. Furthermore, certain aspects of the present invention provide a method of producing a viral vaccine against a disease spread by a wild mosquito population to a mammal, comprising the steps of genetically engineering a mutation of one or more amino acids in a ChikV E2 protein such as the TMD to produce an engineered virus, wherein the transmembrane protein is able to span the membrane envelope when the virus replicates in mosquito cells, but is unable to efficiently span the membrane envelope when the virus replicates in mammalian cells, and wherein the virus remains capable of replicating in mosquito cells; introducing the engineered virus into a wild mosquito population; and allowing the virus to replicate in cells of the wild mosquito population to produce a population of mosquitoes which excludes the wild-type pathogenic virus and harbors the vaccine strain of the virus such that a mosquito bite delivers the vaccine to a mammal that is bitten.
In addition, certain aspects of the present invention provide a method of vaccinating an individual in need of such treatment, comprising the steps of introducing the viral vaccine of the present invention into the individual and allowing the vaccine to produce viral proteins for immune surveillance and to stimulate the immune system for antibody production in the individual.
A. Vaccine Preparations
In any case, a vaccine component (e.g., an antigenic peptide, polypeptide, nucleic acid encoding a proteinaceous composition, or virus particle) may be isolated and/or purified from the chemical synthesis reagents, cell, or cellular components. A vaccine component may be cultured in a population of cells, such as a cell line. Any suitable cell population or cell line may be used. For example, a vaccine component (e.g., a polypeptide, a nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide, or a virus particle) may be cultured in insect cells. Suitable insect cells include, but are not limited to, C6/36 cells, Sf9 cells, other Sf series cells, drosophila 51 cells, other drosophila cell lines, or TN368 cells. It is anticipated that any cultured insect cells may be used to grow the vaccine components or viruses disclosed herein.
The C6/36 cell line (derived from Aedes albopictus) is made up of mosquito cells and is frequently used to study arboviruses. C6/36 cells can be transfected with a vaccine component, such as a polypeptide or a nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide. The production of viruses can be visualized and monitored using a focus assay.
The Sf9 cell line (derived from Spodoptera frugiperda) is commonly used to express recombinant proteins and can be infected by viruses, including arboviruses. For example, Sf9 cells can be infected by viruses including recombinant baculovirus and St. Louis encephalitis, Yellow fever, DEN-1, DEN-2, Gumbo limbo, Eastern equine encephalomyelitis, herpes simplex virus type 1, and vesicular stromatitis viruses (Zhang et al., 1994). Yellow fever, DEN-1, and DEN-2 viruses can replicate in Sf9 cells (Zhang et al., 1994) such that Sf9 cells can be used to culture and produce such viruses. Likewise, Sf9 cells can be used use for production of the recombinant ChikV of the embodiments.
In a method of producing a vaccine component, purification is accomplished by any appropriate technique that is described herein or well known to those of skill in the art (e.g., Sambrook et al., 1987). Although preferred for use in certain embodiments, there is no general requirement that an antigenic composition of the present invention or other vaccine component always be provided in their most purified state. Indeed, it is contemplated that a less substantially purified vaccine component, which is nonetheless enriched in the desired compound, relative to the natural state, will have utility in certain embodiments, such as, for example, total recovery of protein product, or in maintaining the activity of an expressed protein. However, it is contemplated that inactive products also have utility in certain embodiments, such as, e.g., in determining antigenicity via antibody generation.
Certain aspects of the present invention also provide purified, and in preferred embodiments, substantially purified vaccines or vaccine components. The term “purified vaccine component” as used herein, is intended to refer to at least one vaccine component (e.g., a proteinaceous composition, isolatable from cells), wherein the component is purified to any degree relative to its naturally obtainable state, e.g., relative to its purity within a cellular extract or reagents of chemical synthesis. In certain aspects wherein the vaccine component is a proteinaceous composition, a purified vaccine component also refers to a wild-type or mutant protein, polypeptide, or peptide free from the environment in which it naturally occurs.
Where the term “substantially purified” is used, this will refer to a composition in which the specific compound (e.g., a protein, polypeptide, or peptide) forms the major component of the composition, such as constituting about 50% of the compounds in the composition or more. In preferred embodiments, a substantially purified vaccine component will constitute more than about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, about 99% or even more of the compounds in the composition.
In certain embodiments, a vaccine component may be purified to homogeneity. As applied to the present invention, “purified to homogeneity,” means that the vaccine component has a level of purity where the compound is substantially free from other chemicals, biomolecules or cells. For example, a purified peptide, polypeptide or protein will often be sufficiently free of other protein components so that degradative sequencing may be performed successfully. Various methods for quantifying the degree of purification of a vaccine component will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure. These include, for example, determining the specific protein activity of a fraction (e.g., antigenicity), or assessing the number of polypeptides within a fraction by gel electrophoresis.
It is contemplated that an antigenic composition of the invention may be combined with one or more additional components to form a more effective vaccine. Non-limiting examples of additional components include, for example, one or more additional antigens, immunomodulators or adjuvants to stimulate an immune response to an antigenic composition of the present invention and/or the additional component(s). For example, it is contemplated that immunomodulators can be included in the vaccine to augment a cell or a patient's (e.g., an animal's) response. Immunomodulators can be included as purified proteins, nucleic acids encoding immunomodulators, and/or cells that express immunomodulators in the vaccine composition.
Immunization protocols have used adjuvants to stimulate responses for many years, and as such adjuvants are well known to one of ordinary skill in the art. Some adjuvants affect the way in which antigens are presented. For example, the immune response is increased when protein antigens are precipitated by alum. Emulsification of antigens also prolongs the duration of antigen presentation.
Optionally, adjuvants that are known to those skilled in the art can be used in the administration of the viruses of the invention. Adjuvants that can be used to enhance the immunogenicity of the viruses include, for example, liposomal formulations, synthetic adjuvants, such as (e.g., QS21), muramyl dipeptide, monophosphoryl lipid A, or polyphosphazine. Although these adjuvants are typically used to enhance immune responses to inactivated vaccines, they can also be used with live vaccines. In the case of a virus delivered via a mucosal route (for example, orally) mucosal adjuvants such as the heat-labile toxin of E. coli (LT) or mutant derivations of LT can be used as adjuvants. In addition, genes encoding cytokines that have adjuvant activities can be inserted into the viruses. Thus, genes encoding cytokines, such as GM-CSF, IL-2, IL-12, IL-13, or IL-5, can be inserted together with foreign antigen genes to produce a vaccine that results in enhanced immune responses, or to modulate immunity directed more specifically towards cellular, humoral, or mucosal responses.
An immunologic composition of the present invention may be mixed with one or more additional components (e.g., excipients, salts, etc.) that are pharmaceutically acceptable and compatible with at least one active ingredient (e.g., antigen). Suitable excipients are, for example, water, saline, dextrose, glycerol, ethanol and combinations thereof.
An immunologic composition of the present invention may be formulated into the vaccine as a neutral or salt form. A pharmaceutically acceptable salt, includes the acid addition salts (formed with the free amino groups of the peptide) and those that are formed with inorganic acids such as, for example, hydrochloric or phosphoric acid, or such organic acids as acetic, oxalic, tartaric, mandelic, and the like. A salt formed with a free carboxyl group also may be derived from an inorganic base such as, for example, sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium, or ferric hydroxide, and such organic bases as isopropylamine, trimethylamine, 2 ethylamino ethanol, histidine, procaine, and combinations thereof.
In addition, if desired, an immunologic composition may comprise minor amounts of one or more auxiliary substances such as for example wetting or emulsifying agents, pH buffering agents, etc. that enhance the effectiveness of the antigenic composition or vaccine.
B. Vaccine Administration
Viruses of the embodiments can be administered as primary prophylactic agents in adults or children at risk of infection, or can be used as secondary agents for treating infected patients. Examples of patients who can be treated using the ChikV-related vaccines and methods of the invention include (i) children in areas in which ChikV is endemic, such as Asia, and Africa, (ii) foreign travelers, (iii) military personnel, and (iv) patients in areas of a ChikV epidemic. Moreover, inhabitants of regions where the disease has been observed to be expanding (e.g., Southern Europe), or regions where it may be observed to expand in the future (e.g., regions infested with Aedes aegypti or Aedes albopictus), can be treated according to the invention.
Formulation of viruses of the invention can be carried out using methods that are standard in the art. Numerous pharmaceutically acceptable solutions for use in vaccine preparation are well known and can readily be adapted for use in the present invention by those of skill in this art (see, e.g., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th Ed., 1990). In two specific examples, the viruses are formulated in Minimum Essential Medium Earle's Salt (MEME) containing 7.5% lactose and 2.5% human serum albumin or MEME containing 10% sorbitol. However, the viruses can simply be diluted in a physiologically acceptable solution, such as sterile saline or sterile buffered saline. In another example, the viruses can be administered and formulated, for example, in the same manner as the yellow fever 17D vaccine, e.g., as a clarified suspension of infected chicken embryo tissue, or a fluid harvested from cell cultures infected with the chimeric yellow fever virus. Preferably, virus can be prepared or administered in FDA-approved insect cells.
The immunogenic compositions of the embodiments can be administered using methods that are well known in the art, and appropriate amounts of the vaccines administered can readily be determined by those of skill in the art. For example, the viruses of the invention can be formulated as sterile aqueous solutions containing between 102 and 107 infectious units (e.g., plaque-forming units or tissue culture infectious doses) in a dose volume of 0.1 to 1.0 ml, to be administered by, for example, intramuscular, subcutaneous, or intradermal routes. Further, the immunogenic compositions of the embodiments can be administered in a single dose or, optionally, administration can involve the use of a priming dose followed by a booster dose that is administered, e.g., 2-6 months later, as determined to be appropriate by those of skill in the art.
The manner of administration of an immunogenic compositions of the embodiments may be varied widely. Any of the conventional methods for administration of a vaccine are applicable. For example, a vaccine may be conventionally administered intravenously, intradermally, intraarterially, intraperitoneally, intralesionally, intracranially, intraarticularly, intraprostaticaly, intrapleurally, intratracheally, intranasally, intravitreally, intravaginally, intratumorally, intramuscularly, intraperitoneally, subcutaneously, intravesicularlly, mucosally, intrapericardially, orally, rectally, nasally, topically, in eye drops, locally, using aerosol, injection, infusion, continuous infusion, localized perfusion bathing target cells directly, via a catheter, via a lavage, in creams, in lipid compositions (e.g., liposomes), or by other methods or any combination of the forgoing as would be known to one of ordinary skill in the art (see, for example, Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th Ed., 1990, incorporated herein by reference).
A vaccination schedule and dosages may be varied on a patient-by-patient basis, taking into account, for example, factors such as the weight and age of the patient, the type of disease being treated, the severity of the disease condition, previous or concurrent therapeutic interventions, the manner of administration and the like, which can be readily determined by one of ordinary skill in the art.
An immunogenic compositions of the embodiments is administered in a manner compatible with the dosage formulation, and in such amount as will be therapeutically effective and immunogenic. For example, the intramuscular route may be preferred in the case of toxins with short half lives in vivo. The quantity to be administered depends on the subject to be treated, including, e.g., the capacity of the individual's immune system to synthesize antibodies, and the degree of protection desired. The dosage of the vaccine will depend on the route of administration and will vary according to the size of the host. Precise amounts of an active ingredient required to be administered depend on the judgment of the practitioner. In certain embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions may comprise, for example, at least about 0.1% of an active compound. In other embodiments, an active compound may comprise between about 2% to about 75% of the weight of the unit, or between about 25% to about 60%, for example, and any range derivable therein. However, a suitable dosage range may be, for example, of the order of several hundred micrograms active ingredient per vaccination. In other non-limiting examples, a dose may also comprise from about 1 microgram/kg/body weight, about 5 microgram/kg/body weight, about 10 microgram/kg/body weight, about 50 microgram/kg/body weight, about 100 microgram/kg/body weight, about 200 microgram/kg/body weight, about 350 microgram/kg/body weight, about 500 microgram/kg/body weight, about 1 milligram/kg/body weight, about 5 milligram/kg/body weight, about 10 milligram/kg/body weight, about 50 milligram/kg/body weight, about 100 milligram/kg/body weight, about 200 milligram/kg/body weight, about 350 milligram/kg/body weight, about 500 milligram/kg/body weight, to about 1000 mg/kg/body weight or more per vaccination, and any range derivable therein. In non-limiting examples of a derivable range from the numbers listed herein, a range of about 5 mg/kg/body weight to about 100 mg/kg/body weight, about 5 microgram/kg/body weight to about 500 milligram/kg/body weight, etc., can be administered, based on the numbers described above. A suitable regime for initial administration and booster administrations (e.g., inoculations) are also variable, but are typified by an initial administration followed by subsequent inoculation(s) or other administration(s).
In many instances, it will be desirable to have multiple administrations of the vaccine, usually not exceeding six vaccinations, more usually not exceeding four vaccinations and preferably one or more, usually at least about three vaccinations. The vaccinations will normally be at from two to twelve week intervals, more usually from three to five week intervals. Periodic boosters at intervals of 1.5 years, usually three years, will be desirable to maintain protective levels of the antibodies.
The course of the immunization may be followed by assays for antibodies for the supernatant antigens. The assays may be performed by labeling with conventional labels, such as radionuclides, enzymes, fluorescents, and the like. These techniques are well known and may be found in a wide variety of patents, such as U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,791,932; 4,174,384 and 3,949,064, as illustrative of these types of assays. Other immune assays can be performed—and assays of protection from challenge with the ChikV—can be performed following immunization.
Certain aspects of the present invention include a method of enhancing the immune response in a subject comprising the steps of contacting one or more lymphocytes with a ChikV immunogenic composition, wherein the antigen comprises as part of its sequence a nucleic acid or amino acid sequence encoding mutant E2 protein, according to the invention, or an immunologically functional equivalent thereof. In certain embodiments the one or more lymphocytes is comprised in an animal, such as a human. In other embodiments, the lymphocyte(s) may be isolated from an animal or from a tissue (e.g., blood) of the animal. In certain preferred embodiments, the lymphocyte(s) are peripheral blood lymphocyte(s). In certain embodiments, the one or more lymphocytes comprise a T-lymphocyte or a B-lymphocyte. In a particularly preferred facet, the T-lymphocyte is a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte.
The enhanced immune response may be an active or a passive immune response. Alternatively, the response may be part of an adoptive immunotherapy approach in which lymphocyte(s) are obtained from an animal (e.g., a patient), then pulsed with a composition comprising an antigenic composition. In a preferred embodiment, the lymphocyte(s) may be administered to the same or different animal (e.g., same or different donors).
C. Pharmaceutical Compositions
It is contemplated that pharmaceutical compositions may be prepared using the novel mutated viruses of certain aspects of the present invention. In such a case, the pharmaceutical composition comprises the novel virus and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. A person having ordinary skill in this art readily would be able to determine, without undue experimentation, the appropriate dosages and routes of administration of this viral vaccination compound. When used in vivo for therapy, the vaccine of certain aspects of the present invention is administered to the patient or an animal in therapeutically effective amounts, i.e., amounts that immunize the individual being treated from the disease associated with the particular virus. It may be administered parenterally, preferably intravenously or subcutaneously, but other routes of administration could be used as appropriate. The amount of vaccine administered may be in the range of about 103 to about 106 pfu/kg of subject weight. The schedule will be continued to optimize effectiveness while balancing negative effects of treatment (see Remington's Pharmaceutical Science, 18th Ed., (1990); Klaassen In: Goodman and Gilman's: The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th Ed. (1990); which are incorporated herein by reference). For parenteral administration, the vaccine may be formulated in a unit dosage injectable form (solution, suspension, emulsion) in association with a pharmaceutically acceptable parenteral vehicle. Such vehicles are preferably non-toxic and non-therapeutic. Examples of such vehicles are water, saline, Ringer's solution, dextrose solution, and 5% human serum albumin.
V. Examples
The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodiments of the invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventor to function well in the practice of the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.
Biosafety
All studies involving viable ChikV were performed in certified BSL-3 laboratories in biosafety cabinets using biosafety protocols approved by the Institutional Biosafety Committee of North Carolina State University. Animal husbandry and mouse experiments were performed in accordance with all University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee guidelines.
Construction of ChikV TM Deletion Mutants.
A full-length cDNA clone of Chikungunya, West African strain 37997, in the pSinRep5 vector (Genbank #EU224270, incorporated herein by reference (SEQ ID NO:21)) was obtained (Tsetsarkin et al. 2006). Deletions in the E2 TMD of ChikV were produced by PCR based site-directed mutagenesis, using Pfu Turbo® DNA polymerase AD (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.). Primers designed were to create sets of 9 amino acid (aa) deletions within ChikV E2 so that the TMD size was 17 aa in length (TM17-1, 2 and 3) (Table 1). Reactions were run with and without DMSO (4% final concentration) in 1.5× buffer. PCR cycles were: 95° C., 2 min, ×25 cycles of 95° C. for 15 sec, 45 sec annealing (TA=Primer Tm −5° C. for each set of primers), 68° C. for 24 min. Extension, 28 min at 68° C.; samples were then held at 4° C. Following mutagenesis, the PCR products were digested with Dpn I (New England Biolabs) and transformed into SURE®2 Supercompetent E. coli cells (Stratagene) as per manufacturer's instructions with a few alterations. Following heat shock and recovery on ice, RT NZY+ broth (Teknova, Hollister, Calif.) was added and incubated at 30° C. for 2 hours. After plating on LB agar containing 50 μg/mL carbenicillin (Teknova), incubation was 30° C. for 32-48 hours. A colony PCR screen was used to identify mutations. Growth of all ChikV clones in SURE®2 cells was in LB containing 50 μg/mL carbenicillin at 28 to 30° C. for approximately 24 to 48 hours. ChikV plasmid DNA was recovered using the Wizard® Plus Minipreps (Promega, Madison, Wis.). All ChikV deletion mutant clones were confirmed by sequence analysis (Eurofins MWG Operon, Huntsville, Ala.). Purified DNA produced full-length ChikV RNAs were transcribed in vitro with SP6 RNA polymerase and transfected into C7-10 cells for stock virus production,
Cell and Virus Culture
BHK and C7-10 mosquito cell lines were maintained as previously described (Hernandez et al. 2010) in minimal essential medium (MEM-E) containing Earl's salts, supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 5% tryptose phosphate broth, and 5 mM L-glutamine. C7-10 cells were transfected by electroporation with WT ChikV and ChikV TM17 series mutant RNAs. Supernatants were harvested 2 days post transfection and stored at −80° C. with 10% glycerol added. Infections in sub-confluent monolayers of BHK and C7-10 were performed using virus from these transfections. Virus harvested from transfections and infections in vitro was titrated by plaque assay in C7-10 cells to test for a host-range phenotype. Assays were stained 48 hours post inoculation with 1×MEM-E completed media containing 0.06% neutral red and 1% agarose. Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells were cultured at 28° C. in Grace's medium (Gibco) completed with 10% FBS. Suspension cultures were seeded at a density of 3×105 cells per mL, and allowed to grow to a density of 2×106 cells/mL. 24 hours prior to infection, adherent flasks were seeded with cells from suspension cultures and incubated at 28° C. Subconfluent adherent Sf9 cells were infected with a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of >1 plaque forming units (pfu)/cell of ChikV or ChikV TM17-2, for 1 hr. with rocking and inoculum was removed and replaced with Grace's medium completed with 10% FBS or uncompleted Grace's medium. Supernatants were harvested after 19 hr. of incubation at 28° C. Virus was titered via plaque assay in C7-10 cells as described above. Similar studies were also completed for the ChikV TM16 series of the mutants.
Mouse Studies
Previous studies have described ChikV disease in C57BL/6J mice (Couderc et al. 2008; Morrison et al. 2011) which were also chosen for the testing of the ChikV vaccine strains. C57BL/6J mice were obtained from the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, Me.) and were injected at 14 days of age in the left hind footpad (Kamala 2007). Mice were weighed every day and no mortality occurred from ChikV infection. Swelling and inflammation were measured laterally and longitudinally along the foot below the ankle Fourteen day old mice were infected via subcutaneous injection into the left foot pad with ˜103 pfu of WT ChikV, TM17-1, TM17-2, and TM17-3, ChikV in 10 μL of completed MEM with 10% glycerol. Animals, including those from a naïve group of mice injected with media only, were sacrificed 1, 2, 3, 7, 10, and 21 days post injection (dpi) to evaluate viremia, persistence in the tissues, neutralizing antibody titer (NAb), IgG production, and tissue disease. Observations were made 1-10 days post vaccination to evaluate physical stress, swelling, or disability to the mouse foot pad due to virus infection. One of the first markers for pathology is swelling at the site of infection. WT virus produced severe swelling, TM17-3 reactogenicity was only slight while TM17-1 and TM17-2 had no measurable swelling. Because swelling is linked to other pathology only the mutants which did not produce swelling at the site of infection were challenged, eliminating TM17-3. Animals from which tissues were prepared to evaluate disease were perfused with paraformaldehyde, imbedded in paraffin and processed for H and E staining on 7, 10 and 21 dpi. Based on results from the initial evaluation of the vaccine candidates; naïve mice and mice injected with TM17-1, and TM17-2 were used to test for protection from infection with a more pathogenic strain of ChikV. Twenty eight dpi the majority of mice from each group were challenged via subcutaneous injection in the foot pad with 103 pfu WT ChikV(SL15649) (Morrison et al. 2011), while 3 mice from each vaccine group were injected with media as a control test for any residual response from the original vaccination. Mice were sacrificed 1, 2, 3, and 7 days post challenge to again evaluate viremia, tissue disease, and NAb.
Viremia from Mice
Due to the selective nature of the ChikV strain for growth in mosquitoes (Tsetsarkin et al. 2006; Delatte et al. 2010; Vazeille et al. 2007), and the attenuation of the vaccine strains in mammalian cells, vaccine titers and viremias from mice were quantified by plaque assay in C7-10 as described (Hernandez et al. 2010). Viremias resulting from the challenge virus ChikV SL15649 were quantified by plaque assay on BHK due to the selective nature of this virus for mammalian cells (personal observation and this study). The limit of detection for these assays was <40 pfu per gram of tissue (pfu/g), and the results expressed are the arithmetic means of titers obtained from 3 mice per group per day, shown in
Persistence of Infection in Tissues
ChikV is known to persist in the joints of the host, producing chronic arthralgia. To determine if mutant virus persisted in the vaccinated animals, tissues and sera from infected and naïve mice 10 and 21 days post vaccination were homogenized and RNA extracted using Trizol® LS reagent and the Purelink® RNA kit (Life Technologies Inc. Grand Island, N.Y.) and suspended in water. Extracted RNAs were then analyzed via RT-PCR (reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction) using the following primer pairs; Sense primer: CHIKV 10007F (5′-CAG TGA TCC CGA ACA CGG TG-3′; SEQ ID NO:24) Anti-sense primer: CHIKV 10260R (5′-CCA CAT AAA TGG GTA GAC TCC-3′; SEQ ID NO:25) which recognize the ChikV strain (sequences courtesy of Kristen Long, UNC Chapel Hill). The plasmid icCHIKV SL15649 was used as a positive control, and extracted RNA was used as a negative control. RT-PCR had a sensitivity of detection of ˜10 pfu.
Plaque Reduction Neutralization Test
Neutralizing antibody (NAb) titers were determined by plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) in BHK cells (Smith et al. 2012). Mice sera were heat inactivated at 56° C. for 20 minutes prior to being serially diluted in duplicate 1 to 2, starting with a 1 to 20 dilution. After diluting the sera, approximately 20 pfu of WT ChikV were added to each dilution, allowed to incubate at RT for 15 minutes, and then plated on BHK and allowed to produce plaques for 2 days at 37° C. NAb titers (PRNT50) were determined based upon the highest serial dilutions where 50% of the pfu added were observed, and results are expressed as the geometric mean of titers from the 3 mice per group per day.
Anti-ChikV IgG ELISA
96-well Poly-D-Lysine pretreated ELISA plates (Becton Dickinson, Bedford, Mass.) were coated with >100 ng of purified WT ChikV per well at 37° C. for 1 hour, blocking with PBS-D buffer with 0.2% Tween-20, and 10% FBS at 4° C. overnight. A standard of serially diluted Anti-ChikV IgG1 (#3583, ViroStat Inc, Portland, Me.) was added to the plate, as well as 1:100 dilutions of heat inactivated mouse sera in duplicate. Serum samples obtained 21 dpi and 7 days post challenge were added for 1.5 hours at RT and removed. A 1:2000 dilution of Anti-mouse IgG horseradish peroxidase conjugated (Sigma-Aldrich #A8924). Ab was then added to the plate for another 1.5 hours at RT. ELISAs were developed using TMB substrate (Promega) for 30 minutes in the dark at RT, stopped with 1% SDS, read using a Tecan Rainbow® 96-well plate reader at an absorbance wavelength of 405 nm and reference wavelength of 0. IgG concentrations are given in mg/mL as calculated from the standard curve of control antibody, and results shown are the arithmetic mean of concentrations obtained from 6 mice per group.
Reactogenicity
The first part of the study evaluated inflammation and swelling of the foot and ankle at the site of injection of each of the viruses injected, compared to a control group. Inflammation was monitored for 10 dpi. Severity grades were assigned as minimal, mild, moderate or marked. WT ChikV infected mice displayed mild to moderate inflammation beginning 2 dpi (data not shown) while ChikV TM17-3 exhibited inflammation in the minimal category and was eliminated from the study at the challenge phase.
Histopathology
Mice were sacrificed and perfused by intracardial injection with 4% paraformaldehyde, pH 7.3 on the days indicated. Hind limb tissues were embedded in paraffin and 5 μm sections were prepared (Morrison et al. 2011). Hemotoxylin and Eosin (H and E) stain was used to determine the extent of inflammation of the tissue and tissue disease. Sections were evaluated for fasciitis in the foot/ankle and quadriceps (quad) as in (Morrison et al. 2011).
Host Range Mutant Design
The 26 amino acid sequence defining the ChikV TMD was determined by comparison to the SIN TMD and the junction with the endodomain (Hernandez et al. 2000; Rice et al. 1982; Ahlquist et al. 1985; Strauss et al. 1994; Hernandez et al. 2005). Because of the specific geometry of the helical TMD and the differences in the amino acid sequence in ChikV; it was not clear which amino acid deletions might result in desired HR phenotype. A series of 3 TM17 mutants were made, deleting the sequences shown in Table 1A. TM17-3 represented the most central deletion whereas two other mutants, ChikV TM17-1 and TM17-2 were designed to shift the deleted sequence toward the amino and carboxyl termini, respectively. Likewise, a series of TM16 mutants were made, deleting the sequences shown in Table 1B. Virus titers of the ChikV mutants were determined after growth in both BHK and C7-10 cells. All ChikV TM 17 mutants had titers in the range of 106 from BHK and 107 from C7-10 cells (Table 1A). Similarly, ChikV TM 16 mutants had titers in the range of 106 from BHK and 107-108 from C7-10 cells (Table 1C and
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Safety and Immunogenicity
Chikungunya is a virus which causes arthritis and will also establish persistent infection in the joints (Suhrbier et al. 2012). For this reason, serum as well as tissues surrounding the ankle were examined. The WT La Reunion strain was used to construct the mutant viruses. The virus titers may seem high but this virus is mosquito adapted (Tsetsarkin et al. 2007; Vanlandingham et al. 2006) and was titered on mosquito C7-10 cells. BHK cells, which were not found to be good indicator cells for this ChikV strain, gave much lower titers and did not reflect the actual viremic levels. The first part of the study evaluated inflammation and swelling of the foot/ankle at the site of injection of each of the viruses injected, compared to a control group. Swelling at the site of injection is indicative of primary reactogenicity and is a good predictor of further tissue disease (Morrison et al. 2011). Both TM17-1 and TM17-2 did not produce any inflammatory response at the site of injection and proceeded to the challenge portion of the study.
Virus Viremia Post Injection.
Viremia from all virus infected mice was determined from sera and tissue samples on 1, 2, 3 and 7 dpi and are shown in
Virus Persistence in Foot/Ankle and Quad.
Virus persistence in the mice is defined by the presence of virus past 7 dpi. Persistence was evaluated by RT-PCR at days 10 and 21 post injection and is shown in Table 2. The presence of a PCR product was scored as positive or negative for each of three mice. On day 10 the ChikV infected mice tested positive for 1 mouse in the serum, 3 in the foot/ankle and 1 mouse in the quad. By day 21 this same profile was seen for a second group of 3 ChikV mice. Of the mice infected with the mutant viruses TM17-1 tested positive (1 mouse) in the foot/ankle on day 21, TM17-2 tested positive (1 mouse) from the serum on day 21, and TM17-3 tested positive (2 mice) from the serum on both days 10 and 21 post infection. The limit of detection of this assay was 10 pfu.
Vaccine Efficacy
To ascertain the level of vaccine efficacy animals were sacrificed 1, 2, and 3 days post challenge (28 dpi) to determine viremia and pathology. Challenge was injection with 103 pfu of WT ChikV SL15649, into mice infected with TM17-1, TM17-2, WT ChikV or no vaccine (naïve). Shown in Table 3 are the viremia values measured for the indicated tissue on 3 consecutive days post challenge. It was of interest that ChikV was not more protective against challenge giving a titer of 8.5×103 pfu/g from the foot/ankle and 5.1×102 pfu/g from the quad on day 1. WT ChickV infected mice continued to be infected with challenge virus in the quad on day 2 (1.3×104 pfu/g) which was cleared by day 3 post challenge. As is presented in Table 3, TM17-1 had a titer of 1.3×104 pfu/mL in the serum on day 1 post challenge (day 29). This is challenge virus since all pre-challenge viremia was cleared for this mutant by day 21 (refer to Table 2). ChikV TM17-1 also had a titer of 6.4×102 pfu/mL virus in the quad on day 2 post challenge. No further viremia was detected for this mutant from any tissue on day 3 post challenge in any mouse. ChikV TM17-2 had no detectable viremia in any of the tissues sampled on the 3 days post challenge. The challenge virus, ChikV SL15649 gave serum titers of 4.7×107 and 8.6×105 pfu/mL on days 1 and 2 respectively, but was cleared by day 3. ChikV SL15649 was also found to have viremia in the foot/ankle an all 3 days; 4.3×103, 7.3×103 and 9.8×102 pfu/g respectively for each day. ChikV SL15649 titers were also measured for all three days when the quad was analyzed. These values are 1.7×105, 4.0×105, and 2.1×103 pfu/g respectively on each of the 3 days post challenge. These data collectively demonstrate that ChikV infection targets the joints and surrounding musculature and that vaccination with TM17-2 protected all tissues assayed from WT virus challenge beginning day 1 of the viremic period.
Efficacy was shown further by measuring the amount of Nab on day 7 post challenge (
Total ChikV IgG Concentration
It was important to determine the total ChikV specific IgG post infection. To determine the total concentration of ChikV-specific IgG elicited by vaccination, an enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) was performed 21 dpi. As shown in
Histopathology
It was important to determine if any tissue pathology presented as a result of vaccination with TM17-1 or TM17-2. To determine this, sections of mouse foot/ankle joints were taken at 7 days postvaccination, H&E stained, and scored blindly. Pathology was assessed by scoring slides from each animal based on muscle inflammation, muscle necrosis, tendonitis, synovitis, and perivasculitis. For scoring pathology, the following scale was used: 0, 0 to 2%; 1, 2 to 20%; 2, 20 to 40%; 3, 40 to 60%; 4, 60 to 80%; and 5, 80 to 100%. For scoring of synovium and perivascular inflammation, the following scale was used: 0, no change; 1, minimal; 2, mild (inflammatory infiltrate); 3, moderate; 4, severe (destruction of synovial membrane). Scores for individual animals postvaccination are shown in Table 4. Infection of mice with WT ChikV produced severe muscle inflammation and necrosis with apparent destruction of the synovial membrane. In contrast, animals vaccinated with TM17-1 displayed mild muscle inflammation with no other signs of pathology. Importantly, animals vaccinated with TM17-2 displayed no signs of any pathology at 7 days postvaccination. These results confirm the primary reactogenicity studies, in which no swelling was seen in animals vaccinated with TM17-2.
aScale: 0, 0 to 2%; 1, 2 to 20%; 2, 20 to 40%; 3, 40 to 60%; 4, 60 to 80%; 5, 80 to 100%.
bScale: 0, no change; 1, minimal; 2, mild (inflammatory infiltrate); 3, moderate; 4, severe (destruction of synovial membrane).
To determine if vaccination with TM17-1 or TM17-2 protected animals from developing ChikV-associated pathology during challenge, foot/ankle sections of mice were taken at 7 days postchallenge, H&E stained, and scored for pathology as described above (see, Table 5). Naive mice challenged with ChikV SL15649 displayed moderate muscle inflammation and necrosis. Mice vaccinated with TM17-1 displayed minimal muscle inflammation following challenge with ChikV SL15649, with no other pathology apparent. Most importantly, samples taken from mice vaccinated with TM17-2 prior to challenge with ChikV SL15649 had no detectable pathology and appeared similar to samples taken from naive mice challenged with medium alone. Taken together, these data suggest that TM17-2 is not only nonreactogenic, it is also sufficient to protect mice from pathology associated with ChikV infection. This suggests that TM 17-2 is a ChikV vaccine strain that warrants further investigation and development as a live-attenuated vaccine strain (LAV).
aChallenge, challenged with ChikV SL15649; mock, mock challenged.
bScale: 0, 0 to 2%; 1, 2 to 20%; 2, 20 to 40%; 3, 40 to 60%; 4, 60 to 80%; 5, 80 to 100%.
cScale: 0, no change; 1, minimal; 2, mild (inflammatory infiltrate); 3, moderate; 4, severe (destruction of synovial membrane).
Discussion
This study of ChikV HR mutants TM17-1, 2, and 3 can provide the basis for viral vaccine compositions. The large deletions, such as those studied, do not revert in vitro or in vivo (Smith et al. 2012). One mutant, ChikV TM17-2 did not produce any swelling at the site of injection, produced little if any inflammation in the foot/ankle or quad and did not persist in any tissue tested pre-challenge. Of the 2 HR mutants that were challenged, ChikV TM17-2 also protected against infection compared to TM 17-1 and WTChikV. Assay of the serum, foot/ankle and quad on days 1-3 post challenge did not detect any virus for mice infected with TM 17-2, while TM17-1 and LAR both allowed growth of challenge virus. Considering that infection of humans with an arbovirus confers lifelong immunity, ChikV TM17-2 protected better than infection with WTChikV which allowed a transient infection post challenge. Upon inspection of the histology, TM17-2 did not display any evidence of inflammation or tissue disease day 7 post challenge. These results suggest that ChikV TM17-2 is an attenuated, non-reactogenic, efficacious vaccine strain which should be further developed for use in humans.
Interpretation of the data suggests that the protection conferred by ChikVTM17-2 is not solely antibody-dependent. While antibodies are believed to be the primary method of protection against ChikV infection (Couderc et al. 2009), cell mediated immunity has been shown to be sufficient for protection against alphavirus disease in the absence of strong antibody response (Linn et al. 1998; Paessler et al. 2007). Although the studies here do not point directly to a specific mechanism for protection by this particular mutant there is one notable point to consider. All the ChikV TM17 mutants deleted the same number of amino acids (9) and the only distinction between these mutants is the position of the deletion with respect to the amino and carboxyl terminus of the TMD.
Upon an initial inspection of the post inoculation titers of WTChikV and TM17-1, 2 and 3, it may seem that the virus titers for WTChik and the mutants are high; however it should be considered that the mutants are mosquito adapted to the A. albopictus cell lines C7-10 and C6/36. These viruses were not found to plaque well on BHK and all assays were performed on C7-10 cells. The HR phenotype of these mutants has been proposed in previous studies as a marker of attenuation and now has additional support from studies in monkeys for DV2 and ChikV.
All of the methods disclosed and claimed herein can be made and executed without undue experimentation in light of the present disclosure. While the compositions and methods of this invention have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied to the methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps of the method described herein without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. More specifically, it will be apparent that certain agents which are both chemically and physiologically related may be substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similar results would be achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by the appended claims.
The following references, to the extent that they provide exemplary procedural or other details supplementary to those set forth herein, are specifically incorporated herein by reference.
Features and Molecular Diagnosis of Chikungunya Fever from South India. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2008 May 1, 2008; 46(9):1436-42.
This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/706,589, filed Sep. 27, 2012, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
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| Number | Date | Country | |
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| 20140086953 A1 | Mar 2014 | US |
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| 61706589 | Sep 2012 | US |
