Patent Application
20050100898
The invention relates to a genetic testing method for identifying alterations or the absence of such alterations in a gene associated with Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease.
Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is an exceptionally common hereditary nephropathology with an incidence of about 1 in 800 live births. The disease is progressive, phenotypically characterized by bilaterally enlarged polycystic kidneys, and typically resulting in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) by the age of 65 years. The more common complications include hypertension, macrohaematuria, urinary-tract infection, cardiac-valve abnormalities, and hernia of the anterior abdominal wall. Cyst formation is also commonly observed in the liver, although the occurrence is not associated with functional impairment of the organ. Although not as frequently reported, additional extrarenal manifestations include pancreatic cysts, connective tissue abnormalities, and cerebral-artery aneurysms.
The typical age of onset is in middle life, but the range is from infancy to 80 years. The clinical presentation of ADPKD differs between and within families as partly explained by the genetically heterogeneous nature of the disorder. Mutations in two genes, PKD-1 and PKD-2, account for nearly all cases of ADPKD (e.g., for reviews, see Arnaout, 2001, Annu Rev. Med. 52:93-123; Koptides and Deltas, 2000, Hum. Genet. 107:115-126). PKD-1 and PKD-2 encode integral membrane proteins whose functions have not been fully elucidated. The major gene responsible for ADPKD, PKD-1, has been fully characterized and shown to encode an integral membrane protein, polycystin 1, which is thought to be involved in cell-cell and cell-matrix interaction. PKD-2 gene encodes polycystin-2 which is a predicted integral membrane protein with non-selective cation channel activity. Based on sequence homology with the alpha 1 subunit component of voltage-activated calcium channels, it has been postulated that polycystin-2 may play a role in ion channeling. The C-terminal cytoplasmic tails of polycystin-1 and polycystin-2 have been shown to interact using in vitro binding assays and in a directed two-hybrid interaction. The interaction occurs via a coiled-coil domain in PKD-1 and a region near R872 in PKD-2. Although the biological relevance of the interaction between the polycystins is not yet understood, it does suggest that PKD-1 and PKD-2 are likely to function along a common pathway.
Both ADPKD type 1 and type 2 share the entire range of renal and extrarenal manifestations, but type 2 appears to have a delayed onset relative to type 1. The common phenotypic complications observed for ADPKD including hypertension, hematuria, and urinary tract infection seem to be clinically milder in type 2 patients. The median age at death or onset of ESRD has been reported as 53 years in individuals with PKD-1 and 69 years in those with PKD-2. Women have been reported to have a significantly longer median survival of 71 years than men (67 years). No sex influence is apparent in PKD-1. Mutations in the PKD-1 gene are the cause of ADPKD in approximately 85% of the cases tested, while those in PKD-2 account for 15%. Although a small subset of families with ADPKD fail to demonstrate genetic linkage to either PKD-1 or PKD-2, raising the possibility of a third gene for ADPKD, the existence of a third disease-associated locus has been strongly challenged.
Despite the discovery of strong links between genetic alterations in PKD genes and the onset of ADPKD, the development of a genetic testing method for ADPKD predisposition for routine clinical use has been hindered by several technical obstacles.
One serious obstacle for developing a DNA-based testing method for ADPKD is that sequences related to the PKD transcript, for example, PKD-1, are duplicated at least three times on chromosome 16 proximal to the PKD-1 locus, forming PKD-1 homologues. Another obstacle is that the PKD-1 genomic interval also contains repeat elements that are present in other genomic regions. In addition, the sequences of PKD genes are extremely GC rich and a large number (15,816 bp) of nucleotides need to be analyzed for a thorough evaluation.
There is a need for the identification of segments of these sequences that are unique to the expressed PKD genes and not are present in the duplicated homologous sequences. There is also a need for developing a sensitive and specific genetic testing method for mutational analysis of PKD genes. The development of such genetic testing method would facilitate the diagnosis and management of ADPKD.
In one aspect, the present invention provides a method of mutation analysis of a target nucleic acid, the method comprising: incubating a sample comprising the target nucleic acid in a reaction mixture, in the presence of at least one first nucleic acid and at least one second nucleic acid, where the first nucleic acid comprises a primer sequence which anneals to a unique site of a sequence of SEQ ID NO. 1 or 2, and the second nucleic acid has an opposite orientation from the first nucleic acid, and where the incubation produces amplified products; generating duplexes in the amplified products; and detecting the presence or absence of a heteroduplex from the duplexes, where the presence of a heteroduplex indicates the presence of a potential mutation in the target nucleic acid, and where the absence of a heteroduplex indicates the absence of a mutation in the target nucleic acid.
In one embodiment, the method further comprises determining the sequence of a heteroduplex region; and comparing the sequence of the heteroduplex region to SEQ ID NO. 1 or 2; where a sequence difference in the heteroduplex region compared to SEQ ID NO. 1 or 2 resulting in a predicted functional change in the protein encoded by the target nucleic acid is indicative of a mutation in the target nucleic acid.
Preferably, the first or second nucleic acid comprises a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 3-49.
In another embodiment, the method further comprising performing a nested amplification reaction using the amplified products generated by the first and second nucleic acids as templates and generating duplexes in amplified products from the nested amplification.
Preferably, the nested amplification reaction is performed using at least one primer selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 3-49 and their complementary sequences.
In a preferred embodiment, the presence or absence of a heteroduplex from the duplexes is identified by DHPLC.
In also a preferred embodiment, the sequence of the heteroduplex region is determined by DNA sequencing.
Preferably, the second nucleic acid of the subject method comprises a primer sequence which anneals to a unique site within a sequence of SEQ ID NO. 1 or 2.
Also preferably, the sample comprising the target template is selected from the group consisting of: genomic DNA, cDNA, total RNA, mRNA, and a cell sample.
In one embodiment, the incubating step comprises an amplification reaction selected from the group consisting of: a polymerase chain reaction, a ligase chain reaction (LCR) and a nucleic acid-specific based amplification.
The subject method of the invention may further comprise confirming the amplified product is a PKD-specific product with one or more restriction enzymes.
Preferably, the restriction enzyme cleaves a PKD-specific product to generate a digestion pattern distinguishable from a PKD homologue product.
More preferably, the restriction enzyme is selected from the group consisting of: Pst I, Stu I, Xma I, Mlu I, Pvu II, BssHII, Fsp I, Msc I, and Bln I.
In another aspect, the invention provides a diagnosis method for identifying a patient affected with PKD, the method comprising:
Preferably, the detection of a heteroduplex is performed by DHPLC.
Also preferably, the sequence is determined by DNA sequencing.
In one embodiment, the second nucleic acid comprises a primer sequence which anneals to a unique site within a sequence of SEQ ID NO. 1 or 2.
In another embodiment, the first or second nucleic acid comprises a primer sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 3-49.
The diagnosis method of the invention may further comprise performing a nested amplification reaction using the amplified products generated by the first and second nucleic acids as templates and generating duplexes from the nested amplification.
In one embodiment, the nested amplification reaction is performed using at least one primer selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 3-49 and their complementary sequences.
Preferably, the sample in the diagnosis method is selected from the group consisting of: a genomic DNA, cDNA, total RNA, mRNA, and a cell.
Also preferably, the amplification reaction is selected from the group consisting of: a polymerase chain reaction, a ligase chain reaction (LCR) and a nucleic acid-specific based amplification.
The diagnosis method may further comprise verifying the specifically amplified product with one or more restriction enzymes.
Preferably, the restriction enzyme cleaves a PKD-specific product to generate a digestion pattern distinguishable from a PKD homologue product.
More preferably, the restriction enzyme is selected from the group consisting of: Pst I, Stu I, Xma I, Mlu I, Pvu II, BssHII, Fsp I, Msc I, and Bln I.
In a further aspect, the invention provides one or more nucleic acid primer, where each primer is an isolated nucleic acid selected from the group of SEQ ID NOs 3-49, or the complement thereof.
The invention also provides a pair of nucleic acids, where at least one nucleic acid of the pair is selected from the group of SEQ ID NOs 3-49.
Preferably, the pair of nucleic acids have an opposite orientation and amplify a fragment of a template nucleic acid comprising a sequence of SEQ ID NO. 1 or 2.
In another aspect, the invention provides a composition comprising at least one isolated first nucleic acid and at least one isolated second nucleic acid, where the first nucleic acid is selected from the group of SEQ ID NOs. 3-49 and their complementary sequences, and the second nucleic acid has an opposite orientation from the first nucleic acid, and wherein the first and second nucleic acids amplify a fragment of a template nucleic acid comprising a sequence of SEQ ID NO. 1 or 2.
In one embodiment, the composition of the invention further comprises at least one component selected from the group consisting of: a DNA polymerase, a template nucleic acid, a restriction enzyme, one or more control oligonucleotide primers, ddNTPs, a PCR reaction buffer and their combination thereof.
Preferably, the template nucleic acid in the composition is a genomic DNA or cDNA.
In a further aspect, the invention provides a kit for identifying a PKD patient, the kit comprising at least one isolated first nucleic acid and at least one isolated second nucleic acid, where the first nucleic acid is selected from the group of SEQ ID NOs. 1-49 and their complementary sequences, and the second nucleic acid has an opposite orientation from the first nucleic acid, and where the first and second nucleic acids amplify a fragment of a template nucleic acid comprising a sequence of SEQ ID NO. 1 or 2, and packaging materials therefore.
In one embodiment, the kit of the invention further comprises at least one component selected from the group consisting of: a DNA polymerase, a template nucleic acid, a restriction enzyme, a control oligonucleotide primer, ddNTPs, a PCR reaction buffer and the combination thereof.
Preferably, the template nucleic acid in the kit is a genomic DNA or cDNA molecule.
The invention provides an isolated nucleic acid comprising a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 3-49 and their complementary sequences thereof.
The invention provides a nucleic acid biomarker for ADPKD comprising a PKD-1 or PKD-2 nucleic acid sequence comprising one or more nucleotide alterations as disclosed in
In one embodiment, the at least one of the one or more nucleotide alterations consists of a novel nucleotide alterations as disclosed in
The invention also provides a nucleic acid biomarker for ADPKD comprising a PKD-1 or PKD-2 nucleic acid sequence comprising one or more novel nucleotide alterations as disclosed in
The invention provides a polypeptide biomarker for ADPKD comprising a PKD-1 or PKD-2 polypeptide sequence comprising one or more amino acid alterations as disclosed in
In one embodiment, at least one the one or more amino acid alterations consists of a novel amino acid alteration as disclosed in
The invention provides a polypeptide biomarker for ADPKD comprising a PKD-1 or PKD-2 polypeptide sequence comprising one or more novel amino acid alterations as disclosed in
The present invention further provides a method for diagnosing ADPKD in an individual, comprising identifying nucleotide sequence of PKD-1 or PKD-2 gene of the individual, where the existence of one or more nucleotide sequence alterations in the nucleotide sequence of PKD-1 or PKD-2 gene as disclosed in
The present invention further provides a method for determining in an individual the presence or absence of a mutant PKD gene, comprising the steps of
In one embodiment, the method for diagnosing ADPKD and/or the method for determining the presence or absence of a mutant PKD gene further comprises obtaining a DNA sample from the individual for the identification of nucleotide sequence of PKD-1 or PKD-2 gene.
Preferably the DNA sample obtained is a genomic DNA sample or a cDNA sample.
In another embodiment, the method for diagnosing ADPKD and/or the method for determining the presence or absence of a mutant PKD gene further comprises amplifying a portion of the PKD-1 or PKD-2 gene from the DNA sample before the identification.
Preferably, the portion of the PKD-1 or PKD-2 gene is amplified by a polymerase chain reaction.
Also preferably, the nucleic acid sequence is identified by DNA sequencing.
More preferably, the DNA sequencing is performed using an isolated nucleic acid comprising a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 3-49 and their complementary sequences thereof.
In one embodiment, the at least one or more of the at least one or more nucleotide alterations consists of a novel nucleotide alterations as disclosed in
The objects and features of the invention can be better understood with reference to the following detailed description and accompanying drawings.
The subject invention is based on the identification of unique sites within a PKD gene, the design of PKD-specific primers and the DHPLC analysis of PCR products amplified by using these PKD-specific primers.
I. Definitions
As used herein, “ADPKD” refers to autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. ADPKD is an exceptionally common hereditary nephropathology and is characterized by the development of renal cysts and, ultimately, renal failure, and may alternatively or in addition involve cysts in other organs including liver and spleen, as well as gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal abnormalities.
The term “PKD gene” refers to a genomic DNA sequence which maps to chromosomal position 16p13.3 (i.e., PKD-1) or chromosomal position 4q21-23 (i.e., PKD-2) and gives rise to a messenger RNA molecule encoding a PKD protein. The PKD-1 and PKD-2 genes comprise the sequences of SEQ ID NO. 1 and SEQ ID NO.2, respectively, which include introns and putative regulatory sequences. Like many other genes, PKD-1 and PKD-2 gene sequences, when compared among individuals, show sequence variations. Those genes having polymorphisms which are silent (i.e., with respect to gene expression or function of a gene product) are “normal” genes as defined herein.
A “normal” PKD gene (e.g., PKD-1 or PKD-2) is defined herein as a PKD gene such as described by SEQ ID NO. 1 or 2, respectively, and includes any gene having silent polymorphisms.
A “mutant” PKD gene is defined herein as a PKD gene (e.g., PKD-1 or PKD-2) whose sequence is modified by mutation comprising one or more substitutions (transitions or transversions), deletions (including loss of locus), insertions (including duplications), translocations, and/or other modifications relative to the normal PKD gene. The mutation causes detectable changes in the expression or function of the PKD gene product, and is causative for ADPKD. The mutations may involve from one to as many as several thousand nucleotides, and result in one or more of a variety of changes in PKD gene expression (e.g. decreased or increased rates of expression) or expression of a defective RNA transcript or protein product. Mutant PKD genes encompass those genes whose presence in one or more copies in the genome of a human individual is associated with ADPKD.
As used herein, “biomarker” refers to a biological molecule, e.g., a nucleic acid or polypeptide or peptide etc . . . whose presence or concentration can be detected and correlated with a known condition, such as a disease state, for example polycystic kidney disease, and in particular, ADPKD.
A “nucleotide sequence alteration” or “nucleotide alteration” refers to a nucleotide sequence modification including one or more substitutions (transitions or transversions), deletions (including loss of locus), insertions (including duplications), translocations, and/or other modifications relative to the normal PKD gene.
An “amino acid alteration” refers to an amino acid modification including a substitution, a frameshift, a deletion, a truncation and an insertion, and/or other modifications relative to the normal PKD amino acid sequence.
The term “basepair mismatch” refers to any nucleic acid sequence which is not complementary to the sequence of SEQ ID. NO. 1 or 2. Therefore, basepair mismatch, according to the present invention may be caused by gene alteration or polymorphism of a normal PKD gene; or by any modifications present in a mutant PKD gene. “Basepair mismatch” may be a single nucleotide basepair mismatch or it may include a nucleic acid sequence of 2 or more nucleotides (i.e., 3, or 4, or 5, or 10, or 20, or 100, or 500 more, or up to 1000 nucleotides). The presence or absence of a mismatch, as defined herein, is indicative of the presence or absence of a potential mutation in the target nucleic acid.
The term “authentic” is used herein to denote the genomic sequence of SEQ ID. NO.1 or 2, as well as sequences derived therefrom, and serves to distinguish these authentic sequences from “PKD homologues” (see below).
A “PKD-1 homologue” is a sequence which is closely related to PKD-1, but which does not encode an expressed PKD-1 gene product. Several examples of such homologues that map to chromosomal location 16p 13.1 or 4q21-23 have been identified and sequenced. A PKD-1 homologue may share more than 95% sequence identity to an authentic PKD gene.
As used herein, a “specifically amplified product” is a product amplified from a fragment within an authentic PKD gene (e.g., SEQ ID NO.1 or 2), but not from a PKD homologue. A “non-specifically amplified product” is a product amplified from a PKD homologue or other sequences due to the annealing of nucleic acid primers to a template sequence which is not completely complementary during the amplification reaction.
As used herein, a “unique site” refers to a stretch of sequence of 10-50 base pairs in length within a PKD gene which comprises at least one nucleotide different form a stretch of sequence in a PKD homologue or other sequences. One exemplary unique site comprises a sequence of 5′ AGG TCC AGG GCG ACT CGC TGG 3′, or 5′ CAG GGC CAC ACG CGC TGG GCG 3′, or their complement thereof.
As used herein, a “PKD-specific primer” refers to a nucleic acid sequence which anneals to a sequence within a PKD gene (including introns and exons) under specific stringent conditions. A PKD-specific primer, according to the invention, anneals to a unique site present in the authentic expressed PKD-1 gene or PKD-2 gene, and not to PKD homologues or other sequences under specific stringent conditions. A PKD-specific primer shares more then 95% (e.g., more than 96%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or up to 100%) sequence identity with a unique site within a PKD gene. A “PKD-specific primer” may be 10 to 60 nucleotides in length, for example, 18-52 nucleotides in length.
As used herein, the term “specific stringent condition” refers to an amplification condition which specifically allows the annealing of a PKD-specific primer to a sequence within a PKD gene. Under a “specific stringent condition”, a PKD-specific primer does not anneal to a PKD homologue or other sequences. For example, one specific stringent condition useful to the invention comprises a Taq Precision buffer (TaqPlus Precision buffer, Stratagene, La Jolla, Cat# 600210), a dNTP concentration of more than 50 nM, for example, 100 nM, 200 nM, or 300 nM. The annealing temperature in a specific stringent condition may be higher than or less than or equal to 5° C. below the lowest primer annealing temperature (Tm), for example, 1° C., 2° C., 4° C., 5° C., or 10° C. higher than Tm or 4° C., 3° C., 2° C., or 1° C. below Tm.
“Amplification” of DNA as used herein refers to a reaction that serves to increase the concentration of a particular DNA sequence within a mixture of DNA sequences. Amplification may be carried out using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), ligase chain reaction (LCR), nucleic acid-specific based amplification (NSBA), or any other method known in the art.
“RT-PCR” as used herein refers to coupled reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction. This method of amplification uses an initial step in which a specific oligonucleotide, oligo dT, or a mixture of random primers is used to prime reverse transcription of RNA into single-stranded cDNA; this cDNA is then amplified using standard amplification techniques e.g. PCR.
A “template nucleic acid” or a “target nucleic acid” (e.g., a genomic DNA or a cDNA), is a normal (e.g., wild type) or a mutant nucleic acid that is or includes a particular sequence (e.g. a PKD-1 or PKD-2 gene sequence). It will be understood that additional nucleotides may be added to the 5′ and/or 3′ terminus of the disclosed sequence, as part of routine recombinant DNA manipulations. Furthermore, conservative DNA substitutions i.e. changes in the sequence of the protein-coding region that do not change the encoded amino acid sequence, also may be accommodated.
As used herein, “nucleic acid primer” refers to a DNA or RNA molecule capable of annealing to a nucleic acid template and providing a 3′ end to produce an extension product which is complementary to the nucleic acid template. The nucleic acid template is catalyzed to produce a primer extension product which is complementary to the target nucleic acid template. The conditions for initiation and extension include the presence of four different deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates and a polymerization-inducing agent such as DNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase, in a suitable buffer (“buffer” includes substituents which are cofactors, or which affect pH, ionic strength, etc.) and at a suitable temperature. The primer according to the invention may be single or double stranded. The primer is single-stranded for maximum efficiency in amplification, and the primer and its complement form a double-stranded nucleic acid. But it may be double stranded. “Primers” useful in the present invention are less than or equal to 100 nucleotides in length, e.g., less than or equal to 90, or 80, or 70, or 60, or 50, or 40, or 30, or 20, or 15, or equal to 10 nucleotides in length.
As used herein, the term “opposite orientation”, when referring to primers, means that one primer comprises a nucleotide sequence complementary to the sense strand of a target nucleic acid template, and another primer comprises a nucleotide sequence complementary to the antisense strand of the same target nucleic acid template. Primers with an opposite orientation may generate a PCR amplified product from matched nucleic acid template to which they complement. Two primers with opposite orientation may be referred to as a reverse primer and a forward primer.
As used herein, the term “same orientation”, means that primers comprise nucleotide sequences complementary to the same strand of a target nucleic acid template. Primers with same orientation will not generate a PCR amplified product from matched nucleic acid template to which they complement.
Alternatively, primers of the present invention may be labeled with a detectable label such as a radioactive moiety, or a fluorescent label, or alternatively, the amplification reaction may incorporate labeled nucleotides into the reaction product. Thus, the amplification reaction product may be “detected” by “detecting” the fluorescent or radioactive label.
As used herein, a “nucleic acid” generally refers to any polyribonucleotide or poly-deoxyribonucleotide, which may be unmodified RNA or DNA or modified RNA or DNA. “Nucleic acids” include, without limitation, single- and double-stranded nucleic acids. As used herein, the term “nucleic acid(s)” also includes DNAs or RNAs as described above, that contain one or more modified bases. Thus, DNAs or RNAs with backbones modified for stability or for other reasons are “nucleic acids”. The term “nucleic acids” as it is used herein embraces such chemically, enzymatically or metabolically modified forms of nucleic acids, as well as the chemical forms of DNA and RNA characteristic of viruses and cells, including for example, simple and complex cells.
As used herein, “isolated” or “purified” when used in reference to a nucleic acid means that a naturally occurring sequence has been removed from its normal cellular (e.g., chromosomal) environment or is synthesized in a non-natural environment (e.g., artificially synthesized). Thus, an “isolated” or “purified” sequence may be in a cell-free solution or placed in a different cellular environment. The term “purified” does not imply that the sequence is the only nucleotide present, but that it is essentially free (about 90-95%, up to 99-100% pure) of non-nucleotide or nucleic acid material naturally associated with it, and thus is distinguished from isolated chromosomes.
As used herein, “genomic DNA” refers to chromosomal DNA, as opposed to complementary DNA copied from an RNA transcript. “Genomic DNA”, as used herein, may be all of the DNA present in a single cell, or may be a portion of the DNA in a single cell.
As used herein, “complementary” refers to the ability of a single strand of a nucleic acid (or portion thereof) to hybridize to an anti-parallel nucleic acid strand (or portion thereof) by contiguous base-pairing between the nucleotides (that is not interrupted by any unpaired nucleotides) of the anti-parallel nucleic acid single strands, thereby forming a double-stranded nucleic acid between the complementary strands. A first nucleic acid is said to be “completely complementary” to a second nucleic acid strand if each and every nucleotide of the first nucleic acid forms base-pairing with nucleotides within the complementary region of the second nucleic acid. A first nucleic acid is not completely complementary to the second nucleic acid if one nucleotide in the first nucleic acid does not base pair with the corresponding nucleotide in the second nucleic acid.
As used herein, a “sample” refers to a biological material which is isolated from its natural environment and containing target nucleic acid, and may consist of purified or isolated nucleic acid, or may comprise a biological sample such as a tissue sample, a biological fluid sample, or a cell sample comprising target nucleic acid.
As used herein, a “double stranded DNA” is referred to as a “duplex”. When the base sequence of one strand is entirely complementary to base sequence of the other strand, the duplex is called a “homoduplex”. When a duplex contains at least one base pair which is not complementary, the duplex is called a “heteroduplex”. In the subject invention, the formation of a heteroduplex, when amplified products from a sample taken from an individual are denatured and re-annealed, indicates the presence of a potential mutant PKD gene in that individual.
As used herein, “DHPLC” refers to a separation process called “denaturing high performance liquid chromatography” which has been used to detect sequence variants by separating a heteroduplex (resulting from the presence of a mutation) and a homoduplex having the same bp length. This separation is based on the fact that a heteroduplex has a lower melting temperature (Tm) than a homoduplex. DHPLC can separate heteroduplexes that differ by as little as one base pair under certain conditions. DHPLC can also be used to separate duplexes having different bp in length.
The “heteroduplex site separation temperature” or “midpoint temperature” or “Tm” is defined herein to mean, the temperature at which one or more base pairs denature, i.e., separate, at the site of base pair mismatch in a heteroduplex DNA fragment.
II. General Description of PKD Genes
The PKD-1 gene (e.g., genbank accession number L39891, SEQ ID NO. 1) spans about 54 kb of genomic DNA on chromosome 16 (16p13.3) and contains a 12,906 bp coding sequence divided into 46 exons from which a 14 kb mRNA is transcribed (Mochizuki et al., 1996, Science, 272:1339-1342; Hughes et al., 1995, Nature Genet. 10:151-160). The protein product of PKD-1, Polycystin-1, is a 4303 amino acid protein with a predicted mass of 460 kDa. Until recently, analysis of the PKD-1 gene had not been amenable to genetic analysis largely because of the presence of at least three highly homologous copies of the gene that map proximal to PKD-1 along chromosome 16 (16p13.1). Approximately 75% of the PKD-1 gene is duplicated and shares about 97% identity with its homologous copies. The reiterated region encompasses a 50 kb (5′) portion of the gene containing the first 33 exons. Only the most 3′, 5.7 kb of the gene, containing exons 34-46, is unique to PKD-1. Another notable feature of the PKD-1 gene is a polypyrimidine tract in intron 21 that is 2.5 kb long, the longest described in the human genome. The PKD-2 gene (e.g., genbank accession number AF004859-004873, SEQ ID NO. 2) spans 68 kb of genomic DNA and is located on chromosome 4 (4q21-23) (Mochizuki et al., 1996, supra). PKD-2 contains 15 exons and encodes a 5.4 kb transcript from which a 968-amino acid protein product of approximately 110 kDa is generated. Mutation analysis of PKD-2 is to a great extent easier than that of PKD-1 because PKD-2 is a single copy gene. See Table 1 for a summary of PKD genes and their protein products.
Based on evidence supporting the occurrence of somatic mutations on the normal allele, a two-hit model similar to the pathogenesis of the many familial cancer predisposition syndromes has been proposed to explain the clinically focal manifestations of the disease (Qian et al., 1996, Cell, 87:979-987; Watnick et al., 1998Mol. Cell. 2:247-251). Briefly, the model suggests that ADPKD is recessive at the cellular level and that a second somatic mutation or “hit” in a heterozygous PKD defective background would result in the homozygous loss of PKD function in the affected renal tubular epithelial cell. The loss of PKD function is postulated to disrupt the signaling mechanisms required for proper cell differentiation and in turn leads to the abnormal proliferation of the afflicted cell into cystic structures.
Direct sequencing of the PKD-1 gene has revealed the presence of polymorphism in normal individuals and a multitude of different sequence alterations in ADPKD affected individuals. Table 2 shows a sypnosis of the PKD-1 sequence alterations described in the literature to date.
*Updated March 2001.
**is an unidentified base or amino acid.
III. Identification of Unique Sites Within PKD Genes
Due to the fact that 70% of the PKD-1 gene is replicated as non-functional homologues with more than 95% sequence identity to PKD-1, the identification of PKD-1 unique sites are critical for the development of a genetic testing method. With the successful decoding of human genome sequences, the unique sites within the PKD genes may be identified by comparing genomic DNA sequences comprising a PKD gene with genomic DNA sequences comprising a PKD homologue. Useful databases and computer programs are known in the art (e.g., databases available through NCBI at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov; and computer programs available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/BLAST and DNAStar, www.dnastar.com). A unique site refers to a stretch of sequence within a PKD gene which shares less than or equal to 80% (e.g., less than or equal to 70%, or 60%, or 50% or 40% or 30% or 20% or 10%) sequence identity to a PKD homologue or other sequences.
Several unique sites (e.g., single copy site) have been described in Rossetti et al., 2000, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 68:46-63, the entirety of which hereby incorporated by reference. A novel unique site (5′ AGG TCC AGG GCG ACT CGC TGG 3′, or 5′ CAG GGC CAC ACG CGC TGG GCG 3′, or their complement thereof) is identified for PKD-1 by Applicants of the present application. Other unique sites may be found in, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,228,591 and 6,031,088, each of which is incorporated herein by its entirety.
The identified unique sites can be used for designing PKD-specific primers for the amplification of authentic PKD genes. The length of a unique site may vary from several nucleotides to thousands of nucleotides. Most of unique site identified comprises less than or equal to 100 nucleotides, e.g., less than or equal to 50 nucleotides, or less than or equal to 30 nucleotides. Amplification using PKD-specific primers would increase the specificity of the amplification reaction and reduce the amount by-products amplified from PKD homologues. The specifically amplified product of authentic PKD genes may be subsequently used for sequencing to identify allele variant, e.g., a mutant PKD gene, in an individual or for cloning and/or expression for other analysis.
IV. PKD-Specific Primers Useful for the Invention
Samples to be analyzed for the presence or absence of mutations often contain amounts of material too small to detect. The first step in mutation detection assays is, therefore, sample amplification. A preferred amplification reaction of the invention is PCR. PCR amplification comprises steps such as primer design, choice of DNA polymerase enzyme, the number of amplification cycles and concentration of reagents. Each of these steps, as well as other steps involved in the PCR process affects the purity of the amplified product. Although the PCR process and the factors which affect fidelity of replication and product purity are well known in the PCR art, these factors have not been addressed, heretofore, in relation to mutation detection of PKD genes using the separating method of the invention, e.g., DHPLC.
Any primer which anneals, under specific stringent conditions, to a sequence within an authentic PKD gene, but not to a PKD homologue or other sequences is a useful PKD-specific primer according to the invention. Sequences of the identified unique sites serve as the basis for designing PKD-specific primers useful according to the invention. The primers, according to the subject invention, may be incorporated into a convenient kit for identifying a PKD patient.
A. Criteria for Selecting Primers
A PKD species-specific primers preferably comprise a sequence complementary to a sequence located within a unique site of a PKD gene. The PKD-specific primer may be complementary to a unique site of a normal or a mutant PKD gene, so long as the primer preferably anneals to an authentic PKD gene other than a PKD homologue.
PKD species-specific primers may be selected manually by analyzing sequences of the unique sites identified for a PKD gene. When the sequence of a DNA fragment to be amplified by PCR is known, commercially available software can be used to design primers which will produce either the whole fragment, or any sequence within the fragment. The melting map of a fragment can be constructed using software such as MacMelt™ (BioRad Laboratories, Hercules, Calif.), MELT (Lerman et al. Meth. Enzymol. 155:482 (1987)), or WinMelt™ (BioRad Laboratories).
It is known in the art that primers that are about 18-25 bases long and with 50% G-C content will work well at annealing temperature at about 52-58° C. These properties are preferred when designing primers for the subject invention. Longer primers, or primers with higher G-C contents, have annealing optimums at higher temperatures; similarly, shorter primers, or primers with lower G-C contents, have optimal annealing properties at lower temperatures. A convenient, simplified formula for obtaining a rough estimate of the melting temperature of a primer 17-25 bases long is as follows:
Melting temperature (Tm in ° C.)=4×(# of G+# of C)+2×(# of A+# of T)
The overall design process design consists of both long range (i.e., for the first round PCR) and short range primer (i.e., for the nested PCR) design. In long range primer design, the objective is to design primers that produce good quality PCR products. “Good quality” PCR products are defined herein to mean PCR products produced in high yield and having low amounts of impurities such as primer dimers and PCR induced mutations. Good quality PCR can also be affected by other reaction parameters, such as the enzyme used, the number of PCR cycles, the concentration and type of buffer used, temperature thermal cycling procedures and the quality of the genomic template. Methods for producing good quality PCR products are discussed by Eckert et al. (PCR: A Practical Approach, McPherson, Quirke, and Taylor eds., IRL Press, Oxford, Vol. 1, pp. 225-244, 1991). This reference and the references therein are incorporated herein in their entireties.
Short range primer design should fulfill two requirements. First, it should fulfill all the requirements of long range primer design and give good quality PCR products. In addition, it must produce fragments that allow the DHPLC method to detect a mutation or polymorphism regardless of the location of the mutation or polymorphism within the amplified fragment. For example, large DNA fragments, having up to several thousand base pairs, can be amplified by PCR. If the only goal of the amplification is to replicate the desired fragment, then there is a large latitude in the design of primers which can be used for this purpose. However, if the purpose of a PCR amplification is to produce a DNA fragment for mutation detection analysis by DHPLC, then primers must be designed such that the fragment produced in the PCR process is capable of being detected, and will produce a signal, when analyzed by DHPLC. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the length of an amplified product is 150-600 bps. In a more preferred embodiment, the fragment length for DHPLC mutation detection analysis is 150-400 bp.
There are two goals of designing short range primers. One goal for primer design is if the analysis is used as a “mutation analysis” test. Another goal is in analysis for research or diagnostic purposes, e.g., for identifying a PKD patient. “Mutation analysis” is defined herein as the study or analysis of DNA fragments to determine if the fragments contain variations (i.e., mutations or polymorphisms) in a population and correlate that variation to disease. It is to be understood that, within the context of this invention, the term “mutation” does not include a polymorphism (e.g., normal) which is silent for the disease. When DHPLC is used as a mutation analysis technique, then an important aspect of the present invention is a method for designing primers to produce a fragment in which a putative mutation can be detected, regardless of where the mutation site is located within the fragment. If the mutation is known, on the other hand, then the primer design can be further refined so that the analysis is optimized, i.e., the resolution of the homoduplex and the heteroduplex peaks in DHPLC is maximized. By improving the resolution for the analysis of known mutations, accuracy of analysis can be performed. Improved resolution is required for diagnostic mutation applications. Furthermore, with improved resolution, automatic identification of the positive presence of mutation can be more easily implemented with appropriate software and an algorithm that overlays and comparatively measures the peaks of the normal and mutant DNA samples.
Another method of primer design for mutation analysis applications is to design the primers so that the region of interest is at a lower melting domain within the fragment. In this case the primers are preferred to be designed so that the fragment being measured will overlap the regions of interest as the analysis is performed traveling down the exon. In these cases, the temperature difference between the higher melting domain and the lower melting domain is preferred to be greater than 5° C. and most preferred to be greater than 10° C.
Once the mutation of interest is identified, primers can be redesigned for diagnostic or clinical applications. In these cases, the mutation is preferably located within 25% or 25 bases of the end whichever is closer to the end. The other end of the fragment contains a higher melting domain of preferably 5° C., more preferably 10° C. higher, and most preferably 15° C. higher than the lower domain where the mutation is located. If the primer selection does not result in a high melting domain on the opposite end of the fragment, then a G-C clamp can be applied to increase the melting temperature at the desired end (e.g., an A-T rich end) (Myers et al., 1985, Nucleic Acids Res. 13:3111). G-C clamping is a technique in which additional G or C bases are included on the 5′ end of one or both of the primers. The polymerase enzyme will extend over these additional bases incorporating them into the amplified fragment thereby raising the melting temperature of the end(s) of the fragment relative to that in the vicinity of the mutation. For example, in cases where the mutation is in the center of the amplified fragment and the length is less than 100 bp and the melting profile is flat, or in cases where the mutation in a high melting region of the fragment and a higher melting region is in effect a G-C rich region, a G-C clamp may be necessary. In these cases, proper primer selection will result in a fragment in which the mutation can be detected. The size of the G-C clamp can be up to 40 bp and as little as 4 or 5 bp. The most preferred G-C clamp for mutation detection by DHPLC is 10 to 20 bp.
If it is not possible to design primers which will produce, upon PCR amplification, domains having a constant melting range or domains within a fragment which are sufficiently close in Tm, then it may be necessary to lower the Tm of a domain of interest for successful mutation detection by DHPLC. This can be done, for example, by substituting dGTP with the analog 7-deaza-2′-dGTP which is known to effectively lower the melting temperature of G-C base pairs (Dierick et al.,1993, Nucl. Acids Res. 21:4427). If it is necessary to raise the Tm of the domain, then 2, 6-aminopurine can be used in place of dGTP in the PCR amplification.
In a most preferred embodiment, the primers are selected so that the mutation is located in a “lower melting” domain of the fragment. However, a mutation can also be detected by DHPLC in a high melting domain of the fragment either if the high melting domain does not have a melting temperature that is too different from other domains in the fragment or if a higher column temperature is used that is optimized for the higher melting domain of the fragment.
The long range primer design described above can be further refined by local primer design in which several other factors should be considered. For example, primers with non-template tails, such as universal sequencing primers or T7 promoters, may need to be avoided. The preferred primer has a Tm of about 56° C. The difference in Tm between the forward and reverse primers is preferably about 1° C. The difference in Tm between primer and template is preferably 25° C. The 3′-pentomer of each primer is preferably be more stable than ΔG°=−6 kcal/mol (i.e., more negative). Any possible primer dimers are preferably be less stable than the 3′-pentomer by at least 5 kcal/mol (i.e., 5 kcal more positive). Any primer self annealing loops are preferably to have a Tm of less than 12° C. Primers are preferably be of high purity without failure sequences. To avoid degradation, storage in Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) buffer is preferable to pure water.
In some embodiments, it is more convenient to directly separate a long fragment, e.g., an exon, of up to 5 kb (e.g., up to 4 kb, or up to 3 kb, or up to 2 kb, or up to 1 kb) for mutations. Such long fragments generally contain multiple melting temperature domains. Double-stranded DNA fragments melt in a series of discontinuous steps as different regions with differing thermal stabilities which denature in response to increasing temperature. These different regions of thermal stability are referred to as “domains”, and each domain is approximately 50-300 bp in length. Each domain has its own respective Tm and will exhibit thermodynamic behavior which is related to its respective Tm. The presence of a base mismatch within a domain will destabilize it, resulting in a decrease in the Tm of that domain in the heteroduplex relative to its fully hydrogen-bonded counterpart found in the homoduplex. Generally the presence of a base mismatch will lower the Tm by approximately 1-2° C.
In accordance with the preferred embodiments, optimal results have been obtained using primers which are 18-51 in length and DNA sequence to the primers with SEQ ID NOs. 3-49 (Table 3 and Table 4). However, one skilled in the art will recognize that the length of the primers used may vary. For example, it is envisioned that shorter primers containing at least 15, and preferably at least 17, consecutive bases of the nucleotide sequences of these primers SEQ ID NOs. 3-49 may be suitable. The exact upper limit of the length of the primers is not critical. However, typically the primers will be less than or equal to approximately 60 bases, preferably less than or equal to 50 bases. Further still, the bases included in the primers may be modified as is conventional in the art, including but not limited to, incorporating detectable labels such as biotin, or fluorescent labels.
*All primer sequences are denoted in the 5′-3′ direction. The first number in the name denotes the PKD gene number (1X15AF). The Letter ‘X’ signifies the word exon (1X15AF). The third number after the ‘X’ denotes the exon number (1X15AF). The character after the exon number represents the identity of the exon fragment (1X15AF). The last letter indicates the direction of the primer as either forward or reverse (1X15AF).
*All primer sequences are denoted in the 5′-3′ direction. The first number in the name denotes the PKD gene number (2X15R). The Letter ‘X’ signifies the word exon (2X15R). The third number after the ‘X’ denotes the exon number (2X15R). The last letter indicates the direction of the primer as either forward or reverse (2X15R).
B. Primer Combinations Useful for PKD-specific Amplification
The specifically amplified product can be generated by using one or more PKD-specific primers. Preferably, both primers used to generate one amplified product are PKD-specific primers. However, one PKD-specific primer can be used in combination with another non PKD-specific primer which is not complementary to a unique site of a PKD gene. The non PKD-specific primer is preferably designed according to the same criteria described above herein for the PKD-specific primers and is preferably to be completely complementary to a sequence other then a unique sequence in a PKD gene. A non PKD-specific primer may also be used as a control primer included in the amplification reaction to generate a control product.
Optimal results may be obtained by using one forward and one reverse primer listed in Table 4 and Table 5, although other combinations may also be used. In a preferred embodiment, a primer pair is selected so that the length of an amplified product is 150-600 bps. In the most preferred embodiment, a primer pair is selected so that the amplified fragment length for DHPLC mutation detection analysis is 150-400 bp.
C. Primer Synthesis
Methods for synthesizing primers are available in the art. The oligonucleotide primers of this invention may be prepared using any conventional DNA synthesis method, such as, phosphotriester methods such as described by Narang et al. (1979, Meth. Enzymol., 68:90) or Itakura (U.S. Pat. No. 4,356,270), or and phosphodiester methods such as described by Brown et al. (1979, Meth. Enzymol., 68:109), or automated embodiments thereof, as described by Mullis et al. (U.S. Pat. No.4,683,202). Also see particularly Sambrook et al.(1989), Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (2d ed.; Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory: Plainview, N.Y.), herein incorporated by reference.
V. Preparing Template for Amplification Reaction
Any sample comprising a nucleic acid comprising the entire or a portion of SEQ ID NO. 1 or 2 or their variants (e.g., polymorphism forms or mutant forms) may be used to as template for amplification reaction of the present invention. Useful templates, according to the invention, include, but are not limited to, genomic DNA preparation, total RNA preparation, crude cell lysate and tissue sample.
It's preferred to use genomic DNA as template for PKD-specific amplification of the subject invention. While it is envisioned that crude cell lysate or tissue sample may be used, one skilled in the art will recognize that any non-DNA material present in the sample may interfere with the polymerase reaction or subsequent analysis.
Genomic DNA can be isolated from tissue samples or cells. Preferably, the genomic DNA used as template for the invention is isolated under conditions which preclude degradation and contamination. Tissue samples or cells may be digested with a protease so that there is likely to be little or no DNAase activity. The digest is extracted with a DNA solvent. The extracted genomic DNA may be purified by, for example, dialysis or chromatography. Suitable genomic DNA isolation techniques are known in the art, for example, as described in Current protocols in molecular biology Ausubel et al., John Weley & Sons, Inc., 1997.
Preferably, genomic DNA or cDNA is extracted from cell lysate of tissue samples taken from an individual and used as template for PKD amplification. Collecting a tissue sample also includes in vitro harvest of cultured human cells derived from an individual's tissue or any means of in vivo sampling directly from a subject, for example, by blood draw, spinal tap, tissue smear or tissue biopsy. Optionally, tissue samples are stored before analysis by well known storage means that will preserve a sample's nucleic acids in an analyzable condition, such as quick freezing, or a controlled freezing regime, in the presence of a cryoprotectant, for example, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), glycerol, or propanediol-sucrose. Tissue samples can also be pooled before or after storage for purposes of amplifying them for analysis. In some embodiments, the sample contains DNA, tissue or cells from two or more different individuals.
Any human tissue containing nucleic acids can be sampled and collected for the purpose of practicing the methods of the present invention. A most preferred and convenient tissue for collecting is blood. No patient preparation is necessary prior to blood draw. No medications are known to interfere with sample collection or testing. Usual aseptic techniques and avoidance of contamination are necessary.
Preferably, DNAs are extracted from blood on the day it was drawn. Blood is preferred to stored at room temperature (72° F. or 25° C.) before use. However, whole blood may be stored for short periods at 4° C. but room temperature is recommended. Whole blood specimens may be stable for 48 hrs. After this time hemolysis may compromise DNA recovery and integrity. The optimal amount of blood for DNA extraction for the PCR assay is preferred to be more than 5 ml, e.g., more than 10.0 ml.
VI. PCR Amplification Using PKD-Specific Primers
The subject invention provides a method of mutation analysis of a target nucleic acid comprising SEQ ID NO. 1 or 2 or their variants by amplifying the DNA from a sample comprising the target nucleic acid in a polymerase chain reaction and detecting in a specifically amplified product the presence or absence of a mutation in the target nucleic acid.
Amplification may be carried out by means well known in the art, for example, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), transcription based amplification (reverse transcription), strand displacement amplification (see Current Protocol in Molecular Biology). Preferably, the amplification is carried out by PCR, such as described by Mullis (U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,202), the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein.
PCR makes possible the amplification (replication) of minute samples of DNA or other nucleic acids of any base pair length (size) by taking advantage of highly selective enzymes called DNA polymerases, to extend small DNA strands called “primers” along a “template”. The minute DNA sample serves as the template. PCR reproduces the complementary sequence of deoxynucleotide triphosphate (dNTP) bases present in the template or any chosen portion thereof The PCR is commonly used in conjunction with diagnostic techniques where, for example, a DNA sample having a concentration below the limit of detection is amplified by the PCR process, and the larger amount so obtained is subsequently analyzed.
Apparatus for performing PCR amplifications, e.g. Air Thermo Cycler (Idaho Technologies) and reagents are commercially available from numerous sources, e.g. Perkin-Elmer Catalog “PCR Systems, Reagents and Consumables” (Perkin-Elmer Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.).
PCR is typically run in a buffer at pH 5-8. The buffer contains a double stranded DNA sample to be amplified, a forward primer, a reverse primer, magnesium (e.g., as MgCl2), and the four deoxynucleotide triphosphates (dATP, dTTP, dCTP, and dGTP) generally referred to as “dNTPs”, the building blocks of DNA. The reaction mixture is heated to a temperature (e.g., >90° C.) sufficient to denature the DNA sample, thereby separating its two complimentary nucleic acid strands. Alternatively, the DNA may be denatured enzymatically at ambient temperature using a helicase enzyme. If denaturing is effected by heat and a thermostable DNA polymerase is used, the DNA polymerase is added before the reaction is started. Other denaturing conditions are well known to those skilled in the art and are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,400. DNA polymerases are commercially available from a variety of sources, e.g. Perkin-Elmer Applied Biosystems, (Foster City, Calif.) and Stratagene (La Jolla, Calif.).
The primer sequence is designed to be complimentary to an identified portion of the denatured DNA strands to be replicated by PCR. Upon cooling the reaction to an appropriate annealing temperature, each of the primers anneals to its complimentary base sequence in each strand of the denatured DNA sample to be replicated. Heated to about 70° C. in the presence of the DNA polymerase, the 4 dNTPs and Mg2+, replication extends the primers from their 3′-ends by adding complimentary dNTPs along the length of the strand. dNTPs are commercially available from a variety of sources, e.g. Pharmacia (Piscataway, N.J.). By repeating this process numerous times, a geometric increase in the number of desired DNA strands is achieved in the initial stages of the process or as long as a sufficient excess of reagents are present in the reaction medium. Thus, the amount of the original DNA sample is amplified.
The amount of polymerase must be sufficient to promote DNA synthesis throughout the predetermined number of amplification cycles. Guidelines as to the actual amount of polymerase are generally provided by the supplier of the PCR reagents and are otherwise readily determinable by a person of ordinary skill in the art. Preferably, a DNA polymerase with proof-reading activity is used.
The amount of each primer must be in substantial excess of the amount of target DNA to be amplified. The amount of primer needed for the reaction mixture can be estimated by one skilled in the art in terms of the ultimate number of amplified fragments desired at the conclusion of the reaction.
To prevent false positive results, one skilled in the art will recognize that the assays should include negative controls as is conventional in the art. For instance, suitable negative controls may contain no primer or no DNA (i.e. “water controls”). To prevent false negative results, positive controls are provided by the control primers (see below).
A. Optimization of PCR Conditions
Successful specific amplification, e.g., an amplification which produces maximal amount of specifically amplified products and minimal amount of non-specifically amplified products, according to the invention, depends in great measure on the specific annealing of the PKD-specific primers to the corresponding matched template. If the primer anneals non-specifically to many different sequences in the reaction mixture, the amplification process will not be specific. Although it is unlikely in most of the embodiments to avoid any non-specific annealing or non-specific amplification, it is desirable to optimize the PCR amplification reaction condition so to reduce the non-specific amplification while increase the specific amplification.
In addition, PCR induced mutations, wherein a non-complimentary base is added to a template, are often formed during sample amplification. Such PCR induced mutations make mutation detection results ambiguous, since it may not be clear if a detected mutation was present in the sample or was produced during the PCR process. Applicants have recognized the importance of optimizing PCR sample amplification in order to minimize the formation of PCR induced mutations and ensure an accurate and unambiguous analysis of putative mutation containing samples.
B. Controlling the Specificity of PKD-Specific Annealing of PKD-Specific Primers.
The degree of fidelity of replication of DNA fragments by PCR depends on many factors which have long been recognized in the art. Some of these factors are interrelated in the sense that a change in the PCR product profile caused by an increase or decrease in the quantity or concentration of one factor can be offset, or even reversed by a change in a different factor. For example, an increase in the enzyme concentration may reduce the fidelity of replication, while a decrease in the reaction temperature may increase the replication fidelity. An increase in magnesium ion concentration or dNTP concentration may result in an increased rate of reaction which may have the effect of reducing PCR fidelity. A detailed discussion of the factors contributing to PCR fidelity is presented by Eckert et al., (in PCR: A Practical Approach, 1991, McPherson, Quirke, and Taylor eds., IRL Press, Oxford, Vol. 1, pp. 225-244); and Andre, et. al., (1977, GENOME RESEARCH, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, pp. 843-852). These references and the references cited therein are incorporated in their entirety herein. Thus, availability of a product profile of the PCR process, makes possible the optimization of PCR conditions to improve results in a highly efficient manner.
In PCR amplification, the specificity of the annealing is most important in the first few cycles. The remaining cycles only serve to expend the pool of template which is amplified in the first few cycles. The specificity of primer annealing to template is controlled by the ionic strength (primarily the K+ concentration) of the buffer, the Mg2+ concentration (which is bound to dNTPs and therefore affected by the amount of dNTPs), and the annealing temperature of each cycle of the amplification. In preferred embodiments, the dNTP concentrations are 50 nM, preferably 100 nM, more preferably 200 nM.
Conditions for specific annealing of primers to particular template targets must be determined empirically, usually by varying the annealing temperature in several degree increments and comparing the specificity and sensitivity of the amplification process by agarose gel electrophoresis (See Current Protocol in Molecular Biology, supra).
Because a unique region to which a PKD-specific primer complement to may differ from a homologue sequence only by a few nucleotides, sometimes by only one nucleotide, the specificity of the amplification reaction needs to be tested for each PKD-specific primer used in the reaction.
The formula for calculating primer annealing temperature provided above is only a rough guide, successive trials at different annealing temperatures is the usual way to optimize this important parameter in the PKD-specific amplification reaction. Apparatus are available for simultaneous testing of different annealing temperatures of particular primer-template pairs, which enables the optimal annealing temperature to be determined rapidly and reliably (e.g., Robocycler Gradient Temperature Cycler, Cat # 400864, Stratagene; Eppendorf mastercycler gradient, Cat # 5331 000.045, Brinkmann Instruments, Inc. Westbury, N.Y.).
In some embodiments, the target sequences are amplified at an annealing and extending temperature that is between 1° C. and 10° C. higher than the Tm for the primer pair. Although amplification at this temperature is inefficient, any primer extension that occurs is target specific. Consequently, during the high temperature cycle(s), the sample is enriched for the particular target sequence and any number of cycles, i.e., 1-15 enhances product specificity. The annealing temperature may be then decreased to increase amplification efficiency and provide a detectable amount of PCR product. Or a nested amplification reaction may be performed using the amplified product from the first PCR reaction as template (see below).
Alternatively, one can simultaneously run a set of reactions at a constant temperature but vary the concentration of KCl or MgCl2 or add variable amounts of a denaturant such as formamide (e.g., 0, 2, 4, 6%), DMSO (1-10%) to define the optimum conditions for generating a high yield of specific product with a minimum of nonspecific products.
In one embodiment, a pair of primers comprising at least one selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 3-49 is used in the amplification reaction mixture. The orientation of the two primers is opposite to allow the generation of one or more specifically amplified product.
In some embodiments of the invention, when primers used for PKD-specific amplification are selected from SEQ ID NOs. 3-49, AmpliTaq Gold DNA polymerase with GeneAmp PCR buffer II and MgCl2 solution and rTth DNA polymerase XL & XL buffer II pack from Perkin Elmer, and TaqPlus Precision PCR system from Stratagene were used. PFUTurbo™ is another high fidelity DNA polymerase having greater proof reading provided by Stratagene.
In other embodiments, an annealing temperature of above 65° C. (e.g., 68-72° C.) is used for PKD-specific amplification using primers selected from SEQ ID NOs. 3-49.
In general, it is preferred but not essential that the DNA polymerase is added to the amplification reaction mixture after both the primer and template are added. Alternatively, for example, the enzyme and primer are added last or the reaction buffer or template plus buffer are added last. It is generally desirable that at least one component that is essential for polymerization not be present until such time as the primer and template are both present, and the enzyme can bind to and extend the desired primer/template substrate. This method, termed “hot start,” minimizes the formation of “primer-dimer” and improves specificity of the amplification.
The degree of specificity of DNA polymerases varies with the reaction conditions employed as well as with the type of enzyme used. No enzyme affords completely error free extension of a primer. Therefore, a non-complimentary base may be introduced from time to time. Such enzyme related errors produce double stranded DNA products which are not exact copies of the original DNA sample, but contain PCR induced mutations. Other PCR process features, such as reaction temperature, primer annealing temperature, enzyme concentration, dNTP concentration, Mg2+ concentration, and combinations thereof, all have the potential to contribute to the degradation of the accuracy or fidelity of DNA replication by the PCR process, as described above herein.
C. Sensitivity of PKD-Specific Amplification
The sensitivity of the PKD-specific amplification of the subject invention depends on the template and primers used in an amplification reaction, as well as ionic strength and annealing temperature of each cycle of the amplification.
When genomic DNA is used as template, as few as one or two copies of the template (about 3-5 pg) can be used for successful PCR amplification if the reaction condition has been optimized. However, it's known in the art that a higher template concentration may increase the specificity and efficiency of the amplification.
Shorter fragments are amplified more efficiently than longer fragments. Preferably, primers which generate an amplified product of less than 1 kb, more preferably less than 600 bp, or less than 450 bp in length are used to increase sensitivity of the amplification assay.
Preferably, the sensitivity of the amplification assay is less than 100 ng genomic DNA template. More preferably, the sensitivity of the assay is less than 10 ng genomic DNA template. More preferably, the sensitivity of the assay is less than 1 ng genomic DNA template. More preferably, the sensitivity of the assay is less than 0.1 ng genomic DNA template. Even more preferably, the sensitivity of the assay is less than 0.01 ng genomic DNA template.
D. Nested Amplification
In some embodiments of the invention, a nested amplification is performed using amplified products in a preceding amplification reaction as templates. Preferably, the nested amplification reaction is a nested PCR using PCR amplified products from a preceding PCR reaction as templates. In addition to optimizing the annealing temperature of the primers, “nested” amplification can be used to increase the specificity and sensitivity of the PKD-specific amplification assay.
For example, a method comprising a nested PCR involves two sequential PCR reactions. After multiple cycles of PCR (e.g., 10 to 40, or 10 to 30 or 10 to 20 cycles) with the first pair of primers comprising at least one PKD-specific primer (e.g., a PKD-specific primer and a control primer or two PKD-specific primers), a small amount aliquot of the first reaction (e.g., 1 μl of a 50 μl reaction) serves as the template for a second multiple cycles of PCR reaction (e.g., 10 to 40, or 10 to 30 or 10 to 20 cycles) with a new set of primers comprising at least one PKD-specific primer (e.g., a PKD-specific primer and a control primer or two PKD-specific primers) that anneal to sequences internal to, or nested between, the first pair.
Methods for designing nested primers and for performing nested PCR are known in the art (see Current Protocol in Molecular Biology, supra). The general criteria for selecting primers as described above also applies to the design of nested primers. Both nested primers need to anneal to sequences internal to (e.g., within) the first pair of primers and at least one of the nested primers, however, according to the subject invention, needs to be PKD-specific.
Using the nested PCR procedure, the template that is successfully amplified is selected twice for PKD-specificity. The use of nested PCR can also greatly enhance the yield of the species-specific product, therefore the sensitivity of the assay, when a single primer pair fails by itself.
A sample comprising genomic DNA or cDNA may be used to provide DNA template for the amplification reaction. Preferably, genomic DNA is used as template. When a sample comprising genomic DNA is used in the reaction mixture, a pair of primers comprising at least one selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 3-49 generate at least two specifically amplified product, one from each PKD allele in the genomic DNA sample.
E. Amplification Controls
Control primers can be used to serve as positive control for the PKD-specific amplification. The control primers may be added to the same reaction mixture for PKD-specific amplification, or it may be added to a control reaction which is run in the same PCR apparatus under the same parameters. A control primer may comprise a sequence complementary to any identical sequence between a PKD gene and a PKD homologue. Preferably, the control primers generate a single amplified product whose size is distinguishable from that amplified by a pair of primers comprising at least one PKD-specific primers. The size of the amplified product by the control primers may be greater or smaller than the size of the amplified products generated by the pair of primers comprising at least one PKD-specific primers. Preferably, the control primers are chosen to generate a control product which has at least 100 bp, more preferably at least 500 bp, more preferably at least 1000 bp difference in size compared to the amplified product generated in the same amplification reaction by the pair of primers comprising at least one PKD-specific primers.
A control amplification is especially important when analyzing a PKD allele with deletions at the location where a PKD-specific primer anneals. The lack of a specific amplification in the presence of an amplified control product may indicate the presence of the deletion at a specific location of a PKD gene. In some embodiments, more than one pair of control primers is used in the reaction mixture.
See Example 2 for various controls that might be used for the genetic testing method of the invention.
Amplified products may be purified to get rid of free primers used in the amplification by methods known in the art (e.g., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, supra). In a preferred embodiment, the PCR products are purified using the Quickstep™ 96 well PCR Purification Kit from Edge Biosystems.
VII. Detecting the Presence of PCR Amplified Products
The cycle of DNA denaturation, primer annealing and synthesis of the DNA segment defined by the 5′ ends of the primers is repeated as many times as is necessary to amplify the template target until a sufficient amount of either a species-specific or a universal product is available for detection. At the conclusion of the amplification reaction, the presence of amplified products may be detected using techniques conventional in the art.
The primers may be labeled for facilitating the detection. The primers can be labeled with a directly detectable tag, for example a radioactive label such as 32P, 35S, 14C or 125I, a fluorescent compound such as fluorescein or rhodamine derivatives, an enzyme such as a peroxidase or alkaline phosphatase, or avidin or biotin. The PKD-specific primers used to generate the PKD-specific product and the control primers used only to generate the control product may have the same or different labels.
In a preferred embodiment, the amplification products are conveniently analyzed by gel electrophoresis.
Electrophoresis is conducted under conditions which effect a desired degree of resolution of fragments. A degree of resolution that separates fragments that differ in size by as little as about 500 bp is usually sufficient. Preferably, the resolution is at about 100 bp. More preferably, the resolution is at about 10 bp. Size markers may also be run on the gel to permit estimation of the size of fragments. Preliminary analysis of the size of specifically amplified products may indicate insertions or deletions within a PKD gene, and the information obtained can be interpreted together with results obtained from subsequent DHPLC and sequence analysis.
The amplification product pattern may be visualized. Where an amplification primer has been labeled, this label may be revealed. A substrate carrying the separated labeled DNA fragments is contacted with a reagent which detects the presence of the label. For example, an amplified product generated from a radioactively labeled primer may be detected by radioautography. Where the amplification primers are not labeled, the substrate bearing the PCR product may be contacted with ethidium bromide and the DNA fragments visualized under ultraviolet light.
VIII. Separating PCR Amplified Products
Under the most stringent condition which only allows the annealing of completely complementary sequences but not sequences comprising one or more non-complementary nucleotides, a PKD-specific primer will only anneal to an authentic PKD gene template, but not a PKD homologue. Therefore, under the most stringent condition, a PKD-specific primer, in combination with a primer with opposite orientation, being PKD-specific or not, will only produce amplified product from an authentic PKD template, but not from a PKD homologue. However, during a typical PCR amplification reaction, a PKD-specific may anneal to a template comprising an authentic PKD gene and a PKD homologue, especially due to the temperature cycling required by a PCR reaction. Therefore, both specifically amplified products and non-specifically amplified products may be produced, although the amount of non-specifically amplified products may be reduced by the use of at least one PKD-specific primer.
A. Formation of Homoduplex and Heteroduplex
In one embodiment of the invention, a mixture of homoduplexes and heteroduplexes is formed prior to the DHPLC analysis. A standard nucleic acid homoduplex (e.g., amplified product from a normal PKD allele) may be added to the sample and the mixture is subjected to denaturation, e.g. by heating the mixture to about 90° C. or about 95° C. The denatured single stranded nucleic acids formed during the denaturation process are then annealed by slowly cooling the mixture to ambient temperature. A new mixture of homoduplexes and heteroduplexes is formed if the sample contains a mutation. If the sample does not contain a mutation, only a homoduplex of the standard nucleic acid will be formed. In the preferred embodiment, the standard nucleic acid is the “normal” nucleic acid.
In most cases, a PKD patient individual is heterozygous at the loci comprising a PKD gene. That is, the carrier has only one PKD allele and a mutant form and has the other allele as a normal form (e.g., wild type). Since most of the PKD mutations result in a dominant phenotype, one mutant allele is sufficient to predispose a risk for ADPKD development. Another heterozygous situation is when both alleles are mutated but each carries one or more different mutations. For a heterozygous PKD patient, a PCR amplification using a primer pair comprising at least one PKD-specific primer, including a nested PCR amplification, would result in at least two specifically amplified PKD products, one from each allele. The two specifically amplified PKD products may or may not be of the same length (e.g., different length if the mutation on one allele comprises a deletion or an insertion) and would differ in at least one nucleotide from each other.
The amplified products may be denatured and re-annealed with each other to form duplexes. When a specifically amplified product from a normal allele or a specifically amplified product from a mutant allele anneals to another specifically amplified product from the same allele, they will form homoduplex. However, if a specifically amplified product from a normal allele anneals to a specifically amplified product from a mutant allele, they form a heteroduplex.
In rare cases, a mutation is in homozygous form, that is, both alleles in an individual (e.g., a PKD patient) comprise the same mutations. If a sample is taken from a homozygous PKD patient, the PCR amplification will not generate specifically amplified products which can form heteroduplex upon denaturing and re-annealing. In some embodiments of the invention, a sample comprising a normal (e.g., a wide type) PKD gene is added to the PCR reaction mixture so that amplification using a primer pair comprising at least one PKD-specific primer will produce specifically amplified products from the normal PKD gene, therefore ensuring the formation of a heteroduplex during the denaturation and re-annealing process following PCR amplification.
Homoduplexes formed in the denaturation and re-annealing process may also include those formed by non-specifically amplified products. If in very rare cases, a sequence in a template allele (e.g., a PKD homologue sequence) which give rise to non-specifically amplified products also comprises one or more mutation, a heteroduplex may also form. The heteroduplex formed between non-specifically amplified products will also be subjected to further separating the identification process.
B. Separating and Identifying Heteroduplex
The presence of a heteroduplex formed by PKD-specifically amplified products indicates the presence of a mutation in a PKD gene. By separating for heteroduplexes, one can identify whether a mutant allele present in the sample, e.g., taken from an individual. This separating process gets rid of most of the non-specifically amplified products and specifically amplified products from normal alleles, therefore improves the efficiency and specificity of identifying a mutant allele and a PKD patient.
It is well known in the DNA art that a heteroduplex strand will denature selectively at the site of base pair mismatch, creating a “bubble”, at a lower temperature than is necessary to denature the remainder of the heteroduplex strand, i.e., those portions of the heteroduplex strand which contain complimentary base pairs. This phenomenon, generally referred to as partial denaturation, occurs because the hydrogen bonds between mismatched bases are weaker than the hydrogen bonds between complimentary bases. Therefore, less energy is required to denature the heteroduplex at the mutation site, hence the lower temperature required to partially denature the heteroduplex at the site of base pair mismatch than in the remainder of the strand.
Since at least one base pair in a heteroduplex is not complimentary, it takes less energy to separate the bases at that site compared to its fully complimentary base pair analog in a homoduplex. This results in the lower melting temperature of a heteroduplex compared to a homoduplex. The local denaturation creates, what is generally called, a “bubble” at the site of base pair mismatch. The bubble distorts the structure of a DNA fragment compared to a fully complimentary homoduplex of the same base pair length. This structural distortion under partially denaturing conditions has serves as the basis for DHPLC to separate heteroduplexes and homoduplexes.
A separation process called “Denaturing HPLC” (DHPLC) has been used to detect mutations by separating a heteroduplex (resulting from the presence of a mutation) and a homoduplex having the same bp length. DHPLC has been applied to mutation detection (e.g., see Underhill, et al., 1997, Genome Research 7:996; Liu, et al., 1998, Nucleic Acid Res., 26;1396). This separation is based on the fact that a heteroduplex has a lower melting temperature (Tm) than a homoduplex. When DHPLC is carried out at a partially denaturing temperature, i.e., a temperature sufficient to denature a heteroduplex at the site of base pair mismatch, homoduplexes can be separated from heteroduplexes having the same base pair length (Hayward-Lester, et al., 1995, Genome Research, 5:494; Underhill, et al., 1996, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:193; Doris, et al., 1997, DHPLC Workshop, Stanford University). These references and the references contained therein are incorporated herein in their entireties. Thus, the use of DHPLC was applied to mutation detection (Underhill, et al., 1997, Genome Research 7:996; Liu, et al., 1998, Nucleic Acid Res., 26:1396). DHPLC can separate heteroduplexes that differ by as little as one base pair under certain conditions. The references cited above and the references contained therein are incorporated in their entireties herein.
The change in the structure of DNA from an orderly helix to a disordered, unstacked structure without base pairs is called the helix-random chain transition, or melting. Statistical-mechanical analysis of equilibria representing this change as a function of temperature for double-stranded molecules of natural sequence has been presented by Wartell and Montroll (1972, Adv. Chem. Phys. 22: 129). The theory assumes that each base pair can exist in only two possible states-either stacked, helical, and hydrogen bonded, or disordered. It permits calculation of the probability that each individual base pair is either helical or melted at any temperature, given only the base sequence and a very small number of empirically calibrated parameters. The statistical-mechanical theories take into account the differing intrinsic stabilities of each base pair or cluster of neighboring base pairs, the influence of adjacent helical structure on the probability that a neighboring base pair is helical or melted (the coopertivity), and the restrictions on the conformational liberty of a disordered region if it is bounded at both ends by helical regions.
Iteration of the probability calculation at a closely spaced series of temperature steps and interpolation permit determination of the midpoint temperature at which each base pair is at 50/50 equilibrium between the helical and melted states. The MELT program provides the midpoint temperature and some other functions. A plot of midpoint temperature as a function of position along the molecule is called a melting map. It clearly shows that the melting of nearby base pairs is closely coupled over substantial lengths of the molecule despite their individual differences in stability. The existence of fairly long regions, 30-300 bp, termed domains, in which all bases melt at very nearly the same temperature, is typical. The melting map directly delineates the lowest melting domains in the molecules.
At a partially denaturing temperature, a heteroduplex having a base pair mismatch within a sample sequence will denature at the site of the mismatch, while the rest of the sample sequence will remain intact. The partially denatured heteroduplex can be separated and detected using DHPLC.
When HPLC is used under partially denaturing conditions (e.g., DHPLC) to separate a mixture of homoduplexes and heteroduplexes, the heteroduplexes usually elute ahead of the homoduplexes.
In particular embodiment of the invention, a heteroduplex is separated and identified from a homoduplex by DHPLC, and the presence of heteroduplex indicates the presence of at least one mutation in the PKD gene, e.g., a substitution of one or more nucleotides (or insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides) present in the mutant allele.
In another particular embodiment, DHPLC gradient is determined by WavemakerT 4.0 software from Transgenomic, Inc. (San Jose, Calif.).
Separating applications require that the mutation can be detected regardless of where the mutation might be located on the fragment. In this situation, the mutation might be located in the middle of the fragment or in a higher melting domain, both cases where it is more difficult to detect. It is preferred than the range of melting variation of the fragment is no greater than 10° C. and most preferred is the range of variation is no greater than 5° C.
In some mutation analyses, only two peaks or a partially resolved peak(s) are observed in DHPLC analysis. The two homoduplex peaks may appear as one peak or a partially resolved peak and the two heteroduplex peaks may appear as one peak or a partially resolved peak. In some cases, only a broadening of the initial peak is observed under partially denaturing conditions.
If a sample contained homozygous DNA fragments of the same length, then hybridization and analysis by DHPLC would only produce a single peak at any temperature since no heteroduplexes could be formed. In the operation of the present method, the determination of a mutation can be made by hybridizing the homozygous sample with the known wild type fragment and performing a DHPLC analysis at a partially denaturing temperature. If the sample contained only normal allele then a single peak would be seen in the DHPLC analysis since no heteroduplexes could be formed. If the sample contained heterozygous mutant alleles, then analysis by DHPLC would show the separation of homoduplexes and heteroduplexes.
The temperature at which 50% of a constant melting domain is denatured may also be determined experimentally by plotting the UV (UV) absorbance of a DNA sample against temperature. The absorbance increases with temperature and the resulting plot is called a melting profile (Breslauer et al., 1986, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83:3746; Breslauer, 1987, Calculating Thermodynamic Data for Transitions of any Molecularity, p. 221, Marky et al. eds., J. Wiley and Sons). The midpoint of the absorbance axis on the melting profile represents the melting temperature (Tm), i.e. the temperature at which 50% of the DNA strands in the duplex are denatured. In one embodiment of the present invention, this observed Tm is used as a starting temperature for performing DHPLC for mutation detection. The temperature may be then adjusted according to the patterns observed using different controls (see below). In one embodiment, a consistent Tm is used to analyze the same amplicons (i.e., produced by the same pair of primers) from different samples.
In another embodiment of the present invention, software such as MELT (Lerman, et al., 1987, Meth. Enzymol. 155:482) or WinMelt™, version 2.0, is used to obtain a calculated Tm which is used as a starting temperature for performing DHPLC for mutation detection. These software programs show that despite individual differences in base pair stability, the melting temperature of nearby base pairs is closely coupled, i.e., there is a cooperative effect. Thus, there are long regions of 30 to 300 base pairs, called “domains”, in which the melting temperature is fairly constant. In a similar manner, the software MELTSCAN (Brossette, et al., 1994, Nucleic Acid Res. 22:4321) calculates melting domains in a DNA fragment and their corresponding melting temperatures. The concept of a constant temperature melting domain is important since it makes possible the detection of a mutation in any portion of the domain at a single heteromutant site selective temperature.
Another particular method for separating and identifying heteroduplex is Matched Ion Nucleic acid Chromatography (MIPC). MIPC was introduced to effectively separate mixtures of double stranded nucleic acids, in general and DNA, in particular, wherein the separations are based on base pair length (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,585,236 and 6,287,822; Huber et al., 1993, Chromatographia 37:653; Huber et al., 1993, Anal. Biochem. 212:351). These references and the references contained therein are incorporated herein in their entireties. MIPC separations are complete in less than 10 minutes, and frequently in less than 5 minutes. MIPC systems (WAVE™ DNA Fragment Analysis System, Transgenomic, Inc. San Jose, Calif.) are equipped with computer controlled ovens which enclose the columns and column inlet areas.
Although DHPLC and MICP are the described methods for separating and identifying heteroduplex, it is understood that other methods known in the art may also be used for identifying heteroduplex. For example, heteroduplex analysis on high resolution gel matrices are also able to detect even single nucleotide polymorphisms. (Hauser et al., 1998, Plant. J. 16:117-25). The PCR/OLA procedure can be used for analyzing amplification products to detect SNPs in the 3′ end of the human PKD gene (Glick and Pasternak, 1994, Molecular Biotechnology: Principles and Applications of Recombinant DNA, ASM Press, Washington, D.C., pp. 197-200). Conformation-sensitive gel electrophoresis of amplification products may also be employed as a means of analysis by the skilled artisan in practicing the methods of the present invention. (Markoff et al., 1998, Eur. J. Genet. 6:145-50). This can also be achieved by techniques such as PCR-restriction fragment-SSCP, which can detect single base substitutions, deletions or insertions (Tawata et al., 1996, Genet. Anal. 12(3-4):125-27; Lee et al., 1992, Anal. Biochem. 205:289-93). Electrophoresis for analyzing amplification products is done rapidly and with high sensitivity by using any of various methods of conventional slab or capillary electrophoresis, with which the practitioner can optionally choose to employ any facilitating means of nucleic acid fragment detection, including, but not limited to, radionuclides, UV-absorbance or laser-induced fluorescence (Keparnik et al., 1998, Electrophoresis 19:249-55; Inoue et al. 1998, J. Chromatogr. A. 802:179-84; Dovichi, 1997, 18:2393-99; Arakawa et al., 1997, J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 15:1537-44; Baba, 1996, J. Chromatgr B. Biomed. Appl. 687:271-302; Chan et al., 1997, J. Chromatogr B. Biomed. Sci. Appl. 695:13-15). Any of diverse fluorescent dyes can optionally be used to label primers of the present invention or amplification products for ease of analysis, including but not limited to, SYBR Green I, Y1O-PRO-1, thiazole orange, Hex (i.e., 6-carboxy-2′,4′,7′,4,7-hexachlorofluoroscein), pico green, edans, fluorescein, FAM (i.e., 6-carboxyfluorescein), or TET (i.e., 4,7,2′,7′-tetrachloro-6-carboxyfluoroscein) (e.g., Skeidsvoll and Ueland, 1995, Anal. Biochem. 231:359-65; Iwahana et al., 1996, Biotechniques 21:510-14, 516-19).
In using the invention in its preferred embodiment to effect a separation of homoduplexes and heteroduplexes for the purpose of mutation detection, a DNA sample is hybridized with a normal DNA fragment by denaturing and annealing the mixture as described herein above. The DNA sample can be hybridized with normal DNA directly. The DNA sample can also be amplified by PCR and then hybridized with the normal DNA. Alternatively, a normal fragment may be added to the sample prior to PCR amplification. The amplified mixture can then be hybridized following amplification. I n each of these three hybridization scenarios, a mixture of homoduplexes and heteroduplexes is produced if a mutation is present in the sample. The sample, so prepared, is analyzed by DHPLC under partially denaturing conditions, preferably at 56 to 58° C., for the presence of a mutation using the method of the invention.
When the method of the invention is used for separating a large number of samples for the presence of a mutation, the throughput of samples may be increased significantly by speeding up the analysis for each sample using a steeper gradient for the fragment bracketing range.
In all embodiments and aspects of the invention, the nucleic acid fragments are detected as they are separated and eluted from the DHPLC column. Any detector capable of detecting nucleic acids can be used in the DHPLC mutation detection method. The preferred detector is an online UV detector. If the DNA fragments are tagged with fluorescent or radioactive tags, then a fluorescence detector or radioactivity detector can be employed, respectively. Following detection, the separated fragments are displayed on a video display separate or printed by a printer. The fragments so displayed appear either as peaks or as bands in a lane.
C. Quality Controls Helpful for Evaluating DHPLC for PKD-2 and PKD-1 Unique Region
The chemical principles which permit DHPLC to distinguish between heteroduplex-homoduplex mixtures and homoduplexes alone also make the methodology quite sensitive to (1) buffer composition, (2) oven temperature at the time of analysis, (3) column condition, and (4) system condition at the time a sample is injected. Fluctuation in elution patterns is normal, and varies depending on the size and sequence of the amplicon, and the specific DHPLC conditions under which it is analyzed. On skilled in the art would have the knowledge in interpreting the elution patterns produced, for example, by following the protocol provided by the manufacture of the DHPLC equipment. However, limits on the extent of fluctuation are appropriate to help ensure that conditions are within a range that would be expected to effectively separate for DNA variants. The following quality control requirements are useful examples established for each analytical condition to ensure consistent assay performance.
1. No DNA Control
This control demonstrates that reagents and materials are free of non-specific signal that could interfere with patient analysis. In some embodiment, the control must show minimal signal (<10% of normal control peak height) in a no-DNA sample treated identically to a sample comprising a DNA, e.g., extracted from a tissue. Because all of the analytical system's hardware is re-used for each sample analysis, and because the DHPLC analysis is the separating component, up to 10% peak height of the normal control is permitted. Actual contamination with a different sequence might cause a false positive DHPLC pattern difference which would trigger reflexing to sequencing which would not be expected to detect a 10% contaminant. In the event that a sequence difference is detected, the fragment would be repeated from the point of PCR to confirm the result. Similarly contamination of an actual positive with 10% of a normal sequence would not be expected to significantly alter the pattern since 50% of the DNA present is already normal. Rare cases where a very subtle pattern change might be obscured by 10% extra normal DNA in the injection are accounted for in the sensitivity estimates of 78-96%. However, persistent no DNA signal each time the amplicon is analyzed indicates the need to alter analytical conditions to minimize or eliminate a systematic and persistent no DNA signal.
2. Normal Control
In one embodiment, the normal control pattern must be consistent with historic patterns. Consistency with established patterns indicates acceptable amplification, retention times, peak height, and peak shape. Therefore, PCR and DHPLC conditions (machine and buffers, etc.) are performed as specified in the Examples. Homologues, or other non-specific amplification signals are absent as indicated by comparison with the established normal control pattern.
3. Positive Control
The positive controls are “DHPLC analytical condition controls” used to demonstrate that the established DHPLC analytical conditions (which detect the positive control heteroduplex) are in effect at the time of analysis. A positive control pattern distinct from normal control and consistent with historic patterns indicates acceptable retention time, peak height(s), peak shape and pattern. Heteroduplex detection indicates that the specific DHPLC analysis conditions optimal for the individual fragment were in effect during patient analysis. It is important to note that these controls are not necessarily PKD positive signals. Specific PKD positive samples for each of the 83 PKD fragments are not available. In their absence, another heteroduplex (positive and normal control) is used as the positive indicator demonstrating appropriate analytical conditions at the time of analysis.
4. Additional Positive Controls
Additional positive controls provide pattern(s) consistent with historic patterns for this specific mutation and may be used to separate out very common polymorphisms. Generally, a specific DNA variant will generate a unique signature heteroduplex pattern that is highly reproducible from sample to sample. A pattern consistent with the established pattern indicates acceptable retention time, peak height(s), peak shape and pattern. The specific heteroduplex pattern demonstrates that specific DHPLC analysis conditions optimal for this DNA variant were in effect during patient analysis and, therefore, patient patterns matching this can be considered to possess the common polymorphism. This optional separating method for common polymorphisms is highly specific to the unique amplicon and variant and is dependent upon appropriate validation studies unique to the variant.
D. Analyzing DHPLC Results
Since DHPLC is a separating process, any specimen (e.g., DNA, or cell lysate or tissue sample) with a signal that differs from the normal control should be considered a potential positive and treated by one of several options available depending on the circumstances. For some embodiments, a signal that is too week to interpret (less than 25% of the normal control peak height) could be caused by PCR failure, Wave injection failure, or some other sporadic instrumentation problem unique to the sample. Options include repeat from the point of PCR, repeat the Wave injection (with all controls), or report the wave result as inconclusive and proceed to sequencing. A signal that differs from the normal control in pattern should be considered positive, scored as “P”, and sequenced. A signal that differs very slightly from the normal control pattern should be scored as “B” and sequenced. A signal that is much stronger than the normal control signal should be scored as “P” and sequenced. Note that no patient specimens will be resulted based on these results alone. The specific options utilized will vary with the amplicon and its DHPLC performance history, and the specific circumstances for the specimen.
In some embodiments, the only results released from the DHPLC results will be those scored as “normal” by Wave analysis. In order to be scored as normal, the specimen's DHPLC pattern must be consistent with the normal control by the following QC criteria: (a) peak number, (b) peak height, (c) peak pattern, (d) retention time, (e) baseline shape. In other words, the pattern for the individual specimen must look like the normal control, within a reasonable expected range of variation. Consult with the validation data reference patterns if necessary. The sensitivity of DHPLC separating was assessed by counting patterns that differ substantially from the normal control. When a pattern genuinely appears to differ from the normal control, there should be no doubt—it is scored as positive and sent on for sequencing. Only those that meet the requirements for that specific amplicon and have a pattern consistent with the normal control should be scored and released as normal.
Specific numerical criteria used for judging “consistent with” include, but are not limited to, (a) number of peaks where a peak represents a local maximum in the signal intensity, (b) peak heights, or maximum signal intensities, which are usually between 0.5 and 2.0 times the height of the normal control, (c) retention time of peaks, which must be ±60 seconds compared to the corresponding normal controls. Peak pattern is judged by relative correspondence of each slope change within a peak, and relative intensities and retention times of individual peaks within a complex pattern. Baseline patterns are usually smooth and consistent in all samples. A relatively low baseline change may represent a heteroduplex that elutes and perhaps melts at considerably different retention times from the homoduplex peak(s). The retention time and peak height criteria for each amplicon are specified in the attached tables in the Examples.
In one embodiment, the peak pattern assessment is a combination of (1) the sample signal satisfying the same run control criteria as the normal control, and (2) the sample signal pattern being consistent with the normal control based on the relative comparison for that run. Normal control patterns are expected to vary slightly from run to run, and still be acceptable, so individual samples scored as normal are a combination of satisfying (1) the same run control criteria as the normal control, (2) the relative control criteria inherent in the comparison of the normal control to each patient sample, described above. It seems clear that subtle changes in the pattern of the patient sample might be consistent with the absolute run criteria for the normal control, yet be clearly distinct using relative comparison of normal and patient within a run. The relative comparison within a run always supercedes historic patterns, assuming the normal control has passed control criteria and the run is accepted.
IX. Verification of Heteroduplex
Optionally, the identified heteroduplex may be verified by means of digesting the amplification products with one or more restriction enzymes. The restriction enzymes useful for this purpose are selected by comparing the sequences of authentic PKD genes and PKD homologues, or by comparing PKD polymorphisms. Useful restriction enzymes according to the invention generate distinguishable fragment profiles for an authentic PKD gene and a PKD homologue. Examples of such restriction enzymes include, but are not limited to, Pst I, Stu I, Xma I, Mlu I, Pvu II, BssHII, Fsp I, Msc I, and Bln I. Useful restriction enzymes may also generate distinguishable fragment profile for a normal PKD gene and a mutant PKD gene. It is understood that more restriction enzymes may be identified by simply comparing the sequence of a PKD gene and a PKD homologue gene or a normal PKD allele and a mutant PKD allele. A restriction enzyme with its recognition site or cleavage site in one sequence altered so as to abolish or create a cleavage site but not in the other sequence may be considered a useful restriction enzyme for the subject invention. Restriction of nucleic acids is followed by separation of the resulting fragments and analysis of fragment length or differential fragment migration in denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC) or gel electrophoresis, as above, including restriction-capillary electrophoresis.
X. Sequencing of Heteroduplexes Identified by DHPLC
Heteroduplex indicating the presence of one or more mutation, identified by DHPLC, may be cloned, amplified, and/or sequenced. Any known sequencing method known in the art can be used to sequence the heteroduplex. In some embodiments, the heteroduplex identified was used as template for PCR amplification and amplified products are sequenced by Sequetech Corporation (Mountain View, Calif.). In a preferred embodiment, sequencing is carried out by using one of the primers with SEQ ID NOs. 3-49.
In some embodiments, the identified heteroduplex is amplified and cloned into a plasmid (e.g., Zero Blunt TOPO PCR cloning kit, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif., Cat #4560-01) before sequencing. The plasmid containing the PCR fragment is then propagated by well known methods in the art before subject to sequencing.
XI. DNA Alterations Identified According to the Methods of the Present Invention
A number of nucleotide and amino acid alterations have been identified in individuals diagnosed with ADPKD.
The nucleotide and amino acid alterations listed in
In one embodiment, the invention provides a primer selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs. 3-49.
In one embodiment, the invention provides an isolated PKD-1 or PKD-2 polynucleotide comprising one or more nucleotide sequence alterations as disclosed in
In another embodiment, the invention provides an isolated PKD-1 or PKD-2 polynucleotide comprising one or more novel nucleotide sequence alterations as disclosed in
In another embodiment, the invention provides a purified PKD-1 or PKD-2 polypeptide comprising one or more amino acid sequence alterations as disclosed in
In another embodiment, the invention provides a purified PKD-1 or PKD-2 polypeptide comprising one or more novel amino acid sequence alterations as disclosed in
Preferably, the PKD-1 or PKD-2 polynucleotide or polypeptide comprising one or more sequence alterations is used as a marker for ADPKD.
XII. Clinical Use of the Subject Method and Identified Alterations
The genetic testing method described in this application is targeted toward identifying DNA alterations in the coding region of the PKD-1 or PKD-2 gene, including the splice junction acceptor/donor sequences, which have been reported to cause ADPKD. The method can be performed to assists physicians to:
In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for diagnosing ADPKD in an individual, comprising identifying nucleotide sequence of PKD-1 or PKD-2 gene of the individual, where the existence of one or more nucleotide sequence alterations in the nucleotide sequence of PKD-1 or PKD-2 gene as disclosed in
Determine and provide genetic counseling for other at-risk family members once an ADPKD proband has been identified in a family.
E. Determine the suitability of a living related donor in transplantation cases.
The invention provides methods for detecting the presence of absence of mutant PKD genes, and the presence or absence of ADPKD.
In one embodiment, the present invention provides a method for determining in an individual the presence or absence of a mutant PKD gene, comprising the steps of a) identifying the nucleotide sequence of a PKD-1 or PKD-2 gene of the individual; b) comparing the nucleotide sequence of step a) to the nucleotide sequence alteration in the nucleotide sequence of a PKD-1 or PKD-2 gene as disclosed in
XIII. Kits
The invention also provides kits for performing the mutation analysis method and the PKD patient identification method of the invention. The invention provides for kits for detecting the presence of absence of mutant PKD genes, and the presence or absence of ADPKD.
Embodiments of the subject kits, in accordance with the methods of the invention, include at least one isolated first nucleic acid selected from the group of SEQ ID NOs. 3-49 and/or their complementary sequences. The kit may further comprise at least one isolated second nucleic acid which has an opposite orientation from the first nucleic acid, and where the first and second nucleic acids amplify a fragment of a template nucleic acid comprising a sequence of SEQ ID NO. 1 or 2, and packaging materials therefore. The kit of the invention may further comprises at least one component selected from the group consisting of: a DNA polymerase, a template nucleic acid, a restriction enzyme, a control oligonucleotide primer, ddNTPs, a PCR reaction buffer and the combination thereof. Kits of the invention, in addition to the reagents, preferably include written instructions for performing the subject methods. Kits are preferably packaged in a unit container and may contain the reagents in pre-measured amounts designed to operate with each other so as to produce the desired result.
The invention is illustrated by the following non-limiting examples wherein the following materials and methods are employed.
A. Chemicals
The following is a listed of chemicals used for PKD-1 amplification and DHPLC (WAVE) analysis.
1% Agarose, 1×TBE, 54 Well Gel with Ethidium Bromide (Embitec, Catalog Number GE 4580)
2% Agarose, 1×TBE, 54 Well Gel with Ethidium Bromide (Embitec, Catalog Number GE 4582)
96 Well Gel Filtration Block (Edge Biosystems, Catalog Number 91751)
Quickstep™ 96 Well PCR Purification Kit (Edge Biosystems, Catalog Number 99605)
AmpliTaq Gold with GeneAmp PCR Buffer II & MgCl2 Solution (Perkin Elmer, Catalog Number N808-0241)
rTth DNA Polymerase, XL & XL Buffer II Pack (Perkin Elmer, Catalog Number N808-00193)
TapPlus Precision PCR System (Stratagene, Catalog Number 600211)
Dimethyl Sulphoxide (DMSO) (Sigma, Catalog Number D-2650)
Ready-Load 100 bp DNA Ladder or Equivalent (Gibco BRL, Catlaog Number 10380-012)
Ready-Load 1 kb DNA Ladder or Equivalent (Gibco BRL, 1800-828-6686, Catlaog Number 10381-010)
Big Dye Terminator Ready Reaction Kit (Perkin Elmer, Catalog Number 4303150)
Gel Filtration Cartridge (Edge Biosystems, Catalog Number 42453)
Long Ranger Singel™ packs (FMC BioProducts, Catalog Number 50691 or 50693).
Oligonucleotides (Operon Technologies, Inc.)
WAVE Mutation Standard (209 bp), Catalog Number 560077 (180 ul)
Acetonitrile-HPLC Grade (VWR, Catalog Number BJ015-1)
HPLC Grade Water (VWR, Catalog Number BJ365-4)
Triethylammonium Acetate (TEAA) (Transgenomic, Catalog Number SP5890)
B. Reagents and Solutions
10 μM oligonucleotide primers: 10 μM working aliquots of PCR primers dissolved in TE buffer should be stored at 4° C. in Pre-PCR refrigerator; sequencing primer working aliquots should be stored at 4° C. in Post-PCR refrigerator.
Solution X-127: Upgrade Blue Dextran in 50 mM EDTA (pH=8.0)
Combine 0.5 ml 50 mM EDTA pH=8.0 (Solution X-35), 500 mg Blue Dextran AND 9.5 ml AUTOCLAVED, STERILE FILTERED DiH2O in a sterile 15 ml conical centrifuge tube. Thoroughly mix the solution by vortexing.
Solution X-126: Upgrade Gel Loading Buffer: Combine 200 μl deionized Formamide and 40 μl Upgrade Blue Dextran in 50 mM EDTA (Solution X-127) in a 1.5 ml sterile microcentrifuge tube. Vortex thoroughly.
WAVE Solution A: Solution A (0.025% ACN)
Preparation of 2L: 100 ml Ion Pairing Agent (TEAA)
WAVE Solution B: Solution B (25% ACN)
Preparation of 2 L: 100 ml Ion Pairing Agent (TEAA)
WAVE Syringe Wash Solution: Syringe Wash (8% ACN)
Preparation of 2 L: 160 ml Acetonitrile (ACN)
WAVE Solution D: Solution D (75% ACN)
Preparation of 2 L:500 ml HPLC grade water
C. Equipment and Special Supplies
Stage I: Preparation Of DNA and/or RNA From Patient Specimens
DNA is extracted from whole blood or lymphocytes using the Puregene® DNA extraction kit. DNA extracted using these reagents should be successfully PCR amplified under the conditions specific to the assay. This is tested by performing the assay as specified in the protocol and comparing the results obtained with the positive DNA control that has been previously validated.
Extracted DNA is quantitated and the 260/280 ratio is 1.4 or greater. Samples with lower ratios indicate that the quality of DNA is poor and may not meet PCR standards. If end results of the assay are not interpretable the sample should be re-extracted.
Stage II: Amplification of DNA by PCR
PCR reaction mixtures and cycling parameters (e.g., for exon 1 of PKD-1 gene) were set up as illustrated in Table 5. PCR conditions were set up similarly, but optimized for specific and efficient amplification of other exons.
One wax bead was added to each well and incubated in a thermal cycler@ 80° C. for 5 minutes to melt the wax and incubated at 25° C. for an additional 5 minutes before placed on ice for further handling.
Upper Master Mix:
PCR amplified fragments may be compared in size, signal intensity and migration pattern with positive control DNA control that has been previously validated. The size of the PCR amplified fragments is determined by comparison to the Molecular weight marker (DNA MASS™ Ladder-Gibco BRL) on the gel. The low range DNA Mass Ladder gives 6 bands of double stranded (100-2000 bp) DNA on staining the gel with ethidium bromide.
Stage III: DHPLC Analysis of PCR Products
Heteroduplexes formed by PCR amplified products are analyzed using WAVE nucleic acid fragment analysis system from Transgenomic, Inc. (Omaha, Nebr. 68164).
Stage IV: Cycle Sequencing
Tables 9 and 10 provide examples of sequencing conditions used in one embodiment of the invention.
In one experiment, detection of mutations in exons 1-34 of the PKD-1 gene was achieved by using eight sets of oligonucleotide primers in eight separate first round PCR reaction to amplify DNA fragments of the following sizes: a) LR1 was 2.2 kb and contains exon 1. b) LR2 was 4.6 kb and contains exons 2-7. c) LR3 was 4.2 kb and contains exons 8-12. d) LR4 was 4.4 kb and contains exons 13-15. e) LR5 was 3.4 kb and contains exons 15 (3′-end) through 21. f) LR6 was 0.3 kb and consists of exon 22. g) LR7 was 4.2 kb and contains exons 23-28. h) LR8 was 5.8 kb and contained exons 29-34 of the duplicated region of the gene. The amplified product from the first round of amplification were then serially diluted to 1:104 or 1:105 to remove genomic contamination and subsequently used as template in a second round of nested PCR. The nested PCR products were heteroduplexed and screened for sequence alterations by DHPLC. Each fragment was analyzed against a normal and positive control using a temperature and acetonitrile gradient specific to the amplicon. Any samples testing positive by DHPLC analysis were subsequently purified and sequenced. Cycle sequenced products were then separated on an ABI 377 automated sequencer and the results were analyzed using an assortment of sequencing software. Tables 11-12 and FIGS. 1 to 13 illustrate the results and procedures of some embodiments of the invention.
The foregoing examples demonstrate experiments performed and contemplated by the present inventors in making and carrying out the invention. It is believed that these examples include a disclosure of techniques which serve to both apprise the art of the practice of the invention and to demonstrate its usefulness. It will be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques and embodiments disclosed herein are preferred embodiments only and that in general numerous equivalent methods and techniques may be employed to achieve the same result. All applications, patents and literature referred to in the specification are hereby incorporated by reference, in their entirety, including figures and tables.
The present invention is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application with Ser. No. 10/083,246, filed Feb. 26, 2002, which claims benefit to U.S. Provisional Application with Ser. No. 60/328,739, filed Oct. 12, 2001, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60328739 | Oct 2001 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 10083246 | Feb 2002 | US |
| Child | 10411915 | Apr 2003 | US |
