This application relates generally to power generation. More specifically, this application relates to power generation through the use of C—O—H compounds for generation of hydrogen.
Extensive work has been done on conversion of cellulose, which is one example of a C—O—H compound, into ethanol (molecular formula: C2H5OH). Ethanol is known as drinking alcohol found in beverages. Ethanol is a flammable solvent and miscible with water and many organic solvents. The largest use of ethanol is as a motor fuel and fuel additive. In the United States, ethanol is most commonly blended with gasoline as a 10% ethanol blend. This blend is widely sold throughout the U.S. Midwest, and in cities required by the 1990 Clean Air Act to oxygenate their gasoline during wintertime. The energy returned on energy invested for ethanol made from corn in the U.S. is 1.34. This means that it yields 34% more energy than it takes to produce it.
There have been several methods of hydrogen extraction from cellulose (C6H10O5). One of the methods is focused on using microbal bugs along with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and a catalyst to cause a reaction that releases the hydrogen in cellulose and captures the carbon in cellulose as sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). There is still a remaining need for developing a simpler and cost effective way of generating hydrogen gas from C—O—H compounds more generally, and in a fashion that allows efficient power generation from the reaction-product hydrogen gas.
While various power and heat generation techniques exist in the art, there is still a general need for the development of alternative techniques for generating power. This need is driven at least in part by the wide variety of applications that make use of power generation, some of which have significantly different operation considerations than others.
Embodiments of the invention provide methods for generating electrical power from a compound comprising carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Water is combined with the compound to produce a wet form of the compound. The wet form of the compound is transferred into a reaction processing chamber. The wet form of the compound is heated within the reaction chamber such that elements comprised by the wet form of the compound dissociate and react, with one reaction product comprising hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas is processed to generate electrical power or heat.
The compound may consist of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in some embodiments. In specific embodiments, the compound comprises cellulose or comprises lignin. The water may comprise liquid water.
A flow of inert gas, such as oxygen or nitrogen, may sometimes be provided to the reaction chamber. A typical temperature to which the compound is headed is between 700° C. and 1100° C.
In some embodiments, processing the hydrogen gas comprises burning the hydrogen gas, while in other embodiments, processing the hydrogen gas comprises feeding the hydrogen gas into a fuel cell. In some instances, processing the hydrogen gas may comprise passing reaction-product gases through a reduced-pressure chamber to remove traces of unreacted carbon. In other instances, processing the hydrogen gas may comprise passing reaction-product gases through a water-cooled chamber to remove unreacted water.
Additional embodiments and features are set forth in part in the description that follows, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the specification or may be learned by the practice of the invention. A further understanding of the nature and advantages of the present invention may be realized by reference to the remaining portions of the specification and drawings.
Merely for purposes of illustration, certain specific reactions involving cellulose are described herein as an example of how the methods and processes disclosed may be implemented. The techniques have been found by the inventors, however, to be readily applicable more generally to C—O—H compounds and illustrations using cellulose are not intended in any way to limit the scope of the invention.
Reaction 1 of Conversion of Cellulose into Hydrogen
Cellulose has a molecular formula of C6H10O5. One possible reaction is that cellulose is disassociated in inert gas upon heating to release H2O and to generate carbon residue. The reaction may be described by:
C6H10O5→6C+5H2O
However, this is different from the inventor's discovery. The inventor previously studied carbonizing cotton for production of carbon fiber. When started, about 15 kg of cotton was used in burning. When the burning ended, about 3 kg of the carbonized cotton was left. It was puzzling that the average yield of the carbon content was 20%-25% at the time of the experiment.
A further understanding of this observation in this experiment leads to the present invention. If the carbon consumes all the oxygen in the cellulose to form carbon dioxide (CO2), the reaction may be described by:
2C6H10O5→5CO2+7C+10H2
Hence, the remaining carbon may be calculated by using molecular weight as follows:
(7 moles×Mr of carbon)/(2 moles×Mr of cellulose)=(7×12)/(2×162)=26%.
In addition, if the carbon consumes all the oxygen in the cellulose to form carbon monoxide (CO), the reaction may be defined by:
C6H10O5→5CO+C+5H2
the remaining carbon may be estimated as below:
Mr of carbon/Mr of cellulose=12/162=7%
Therefore, it is likely that the dominant reaction during cellulose burning may result in a mixture of CO and CO2, with CO2 dominant in the mixture. Hence, cellulose heated in an inert gas may result in the following chemical reaction:
2C6H10O5→5CO2+7C+10H2 (Reaction 1a)
Additional reactions for hydrogen to be burned in oxygen to form water and for carbon to be burned in oxygen to form carbon dioxide are defined as below:
2H2+O2→2H2O (Reaction 1b)
C+O2→CO2 (Reaction 1c)
Thermochemistry is a study of energy changes that occur during chemical reactions. If energy is transferred as heat at constant volume, and no work is done, the change of internal energy produced is equal to the heat transferred. For a specified change of state ΔU independent of any process, (ΔU)v=qv defined by the first law of thermodynamics. If energy is transferred as heat at constant pressure, the quantity of energy transferred can be identified with a change of enthalpy. Therefore, as long as no other work is being done, ΔH=qv. The enthalpy change accompanying a reaction is called the reaction enthalpy (ΔH). An enthalpy of formation is the reaction enthalpy when a compound is formed from its elements. For a reaction with several reactants and products, the enthalpy change ΔH refers to the overall process as follows:
(unmixed reactants)→(unmixed products)
The reaction for which ΔH>0 are called endothermic; those for which ΔH<0 are called exothermic.
Table 1 lists the enthalpy of formation for compounds such as carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and cellulose (C6H10O5) and the molecular weight per mole of the compounds. It also lists the specific heat of the compounds and enthalpy of vaporization of water. Such data provided in the table are used for calculations of the energy required to heat cellulose and to form water vapor at elevated temperatures.
Referring to reaction 1a now, by using the enthalpy of formation, the energy release for 2 moles of cellulose is estimated to be as follows:
ΔH1=5(−393.5)−2(87.2)=−2141.8 kJ
If the remaining hydrogen is burned to form water in Reaction 1b, additional energy released for 2 moles of cellulose is calculated as:
ΔH2=10(−241.8)=−2418.3 kJ
Therefore, the energy release for 2 moles of cellulose is:
ΔH=ΔH1+ΔH2=−4560.1 kJ
The energy release for 1 mole of cellulose in reactions 1a and 1b is thus −2280 kJ/mol.
If it requires an energy of 92 kJ/mol to heat cellulose, as this is calculated by the specific heat Cp and temperature change for cellulose using the following equation:
ΔU=CpΔT=230 J/K/mol*400K=92,000 J/mol=92 kJ/mol
Then, the net energy release for cellulose to be burned in inert gas is:
ΔH3=−2280+92=−2188 kJ/mol=−2188/162 kJ/g=−13.51 kJ/g
In addition, the residue of 3.5 moles of carbon (or 3.5*12=42 grams of carbon) for a mole of cellulose may be potentially burned to form carbon dioxide and to release additional energy that is:
ΔH4=−3.5*393.5=−1377.3 kJ/mol=−1377.3/162 kJ/g=−8.5 kJ/g
The total energy release for cellulose is estimated by:
ΔH4+ΔH3=−13.51−8.5=−22.0 kJ/g
The inventor has performed experiments by using nitrogen gas instead of argon to displace air, because nitrogen gas costs less than argon gas. However, the average yield of carbon is dropped to 17% from 20-25% when gas is switched from argon to nitrogen, which may be due to the formation of CN, or perhaps nitrogen may not displace oxygen as well as argon gas.
Reaction 2 of Conversion of Cellulose into Hydrogen
Another possible reaction for conversion of cellulose into hydrogen is an extension of an old “water gas” technique. In the early days of gas lighting, water gas was generated for street lights and home use. At one time, about 50,000 companies in the U.S.A. were in the business of generating the water gas. The water gas reaction uses charcoal and water to generate hydrogen gas as follows:
C+H2O→CO+H2
When the charcoal is heated to about 400° C., water is added to the charcoal. The reaction of the charcoal and water steam generates carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2). When both CO and H2 are burned in the presence of oxygen (O2), a large amount of heat is released along with the formation of CO2 and H2O. However, the net energy generated from this reaction is about equal to that generated from burning carbon. This reaction is still used today, but not frequently, as natural gas replaces it as a cheaper way to provide gas use.
A possible reaction for generating hydrogen from cellulose by adding water gas is defined by:
C6H10O5+7H2O→6CO2+12H2 (Reaction 2a)
Hydrogen may be burned in oxygen defined by:
2H2+O2→2H2O (Reaction 2b)
In reaction 2a, the energy release is:
ΔH=6(−393.5)−87.2−7(−241.8)=−755 kJ/mol
Also, for 7 moles of water in the form of liquid to be changed to water vapor at 400° C., a heat absorption of 495 kJ/mol is required. This energy includes the heat of vaporization to convert water from liquid to vapor, the heat required for the temperature changes in both liquid and gas forms of water as estimated by:
ΔU=7(40.7+75.29(75)/1000+33.58(300)/1000)=395 kJ/mol
Hence, this heat ΔU added to the energy for heating up 1 mole of cellulose (92 kJ/mol) gives a total heat required, i.e. 395 kJ/mol+92 kJ/mol=487 kJ/mol. Therefore, this reaction has a net energy release (−755 kJ/mol+487 kJ/mol=−322 kJ/mol or 1.99 kJ/g) assuming no energy loss in the process.
However, when the hydrogen is burned in the presence of oxygen, the following energy is released for 1 mole of cellulose:
ΔH=12(−241.8)=−2902 kJ/mole=−(2902/162)kJ/g=−17.9 kJ/g
The total energy release from the two reactions is: −1.99 kJ/g−17.9 kJ/g=−19.9 kJ/g.
Systems for Conversion of C—O—H Compounds into Hydrogen and Electrical Power or Heat Generation
A general overview of a simplified system 100A for conversion of a C—O—H compound into hydrogen is provided with
Technique for hydrogen burning to generate power and/or heat are known in the art. The entire contents of a U.S. Pat. No. 7,144,826 B2, entitled “Method and Apparatus for the Production of Process Gas That includes Water Vapor and Hydrogen Formed by Burning Oxygen in a Hydrogen-Rich Environment” by George Roters, Helmut Sommer, Genrih Erlikh, and Yehuda Pashut, are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.
For illustration purposes, a simplified exemplary system 100B for hydrogen burn is provided in
After the combustion chamber is filled with hydrogen 132, the heating system 136 is activated and now oxygen 134 is introduced into the chamber. In the combustion chamber 130, the oxygen 134 is introduced, for example, with a time delay of five seconds relative to hydrogen 132. The heating system 136 heats the region near the outlet 144 to about 700° C. to ignite the combustion. The ratio of the oxygen 134 to the hydrogen 132 is provided into the combustion chamber so that the hydrogen is completely burned.
Another method of conversion of hydrogen into electrical power is using a fuel cell. A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device. It transforms chemical power into electrical power. A fuel cell can convert hydrogen and oxygen into water and produce electricity and heat. A fuel cell can also use other fuel sources than hydrogen gas, such as liquid fuel like methanol, natural gas, gasoline, and the like. A fuel cell power generation equipment comprises an anode, an electrolyte membrane, a cathode and a diffusion layer, wherein fuel is oxidized at an anode and oxygen is reduced at a cathode, such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,192,666 B2, entitled “Apparatus and Method for Heating Fuel Cells” by John C. Calhoon, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.
The electrolyte 158 is positioned between the anode 154 and the cathode 156. The electrolyte 158 functions as a conductor for carrying protons 160 between the anode 154 and the cathode 156. The protons 160 are permitted to pass through the electrolyte while the electrons 162 are not. The protons 160 pass through the electrolyte 158 towards the oxygen 152 in the cathode 156. The result is a build up of negative charge in the anode 154 due to that the electrons 162 are left behind. The electrical potential generated by the buildup of electrons 162 is used to supply electrical power. Meanwhile, the protons diffuse through the membrane (electrolyte) to the cathode, where a hydrogen atom is recombined at the cathode and reacted with oxygen to form water at the cathode.
There are many types of fuel cells for converting hydrogen and oxygen into water and generating electricity, for instance, among others, phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM), Molten Carnoate Fuel Cell (MCFC), Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC), and Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC). The efficiencies vary from various fuel cells, ranging from 30% to 85%.
The chemical reactions also vary from fuel cells. For example, the chemical equations for describing the PEM reactions in the anode, cathode, and the fuel cell are provided as follows:
Anode: H2(g)→2H+(aq)+2e−
Cathode: 1/2O2(g)+2H+(aq)+2e−→H2O(l)
Fuel Cell: H2(g)+1/2O2(g)=H2O(l)
Another example of the chemical reactions for describing the PAFC reactions is provided below:
Anode: H2(g)→2H+(aq)+2e−
Cathode: 1/2O2(g)+2H+(aq)+2e−→H2O(l)
Fuel Cell: H2(g)+1/2O2(g)+CO2→H2O(l)+CO2
Note that PAFCs can tolerate a low concentration of CO2 of about 1.5%, which allows a broad selection of acceptable hydrogen fuels.
Processes for Conversion of Hydrogen into Electrical Power
At block 204 of
At block 212, the wet compound is heated within the reaction chamber. Such heating may be accomplished using a variety of different techniques known to those of skill in the art, some of which have been described above for specific structural embodiments. In some instances, the compound is heated to a temperature between 700° C. and 1100° C. although other temperatures are known by the inventors also to be effective. Heating the wet compound causes dissociation and reaction of the dissociated elements, with typical reaction products including molecular hydrogen H2 and carbon dioxide CO2. Molecular hydrogen produced within the reaction chamber is processed at blocks 216-224, although not all of these steps need be included in many embodiments.
In particular, it is not expected that the production of hydrogen will be 100% and there may be traces of unreacted elements remaining in the reaction products. For example, passing the hydrogen reaction product through a reduced-pressure chamber at block 216 may be useful in removing traces of unreacted carbon and passing the hydrogen reaction product through a water-cooled chamber at block 220 may be useful in removing unreacted water.
Once the hydrogen has been extracted from the process, it may be processed at block 224 to generate energy, such as by using a burning process or a fuel-cell process as described above.
Water is then added into the chamber at block 406, as water is needed to react with the C—O—H compound to form hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The water in the form of liquid is heated to be changed to water vapor, and the chamber containing the source of C—O—H compound is heated to a temperature at which the C—O—H compound may react with the water vapor at block 408. The reaction of C—O—H compound and water results in forming a hydrogen gas and a carbon dioxide gas. The hydrogen gas needs to be separated from the carbon dioxide gas at block 410 by techniques known in the art.
The diagram shows two possible ways of conversion of hydrogen into electrical power. One way of conversion of hydrogen into electricity is to react hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell at bock 414. Another way of conversion of hydrogen into electrical power is to burn hydrogen gas in oxygen in a combustion chamber at block 412, so that water vapor is formed along with heat release. The water vapor is then fed into an energy converter for producing electricity from thermal energy by techniques known in the art.
Economical Significance of Reaction 1a and 1b for Electrical Power Generation
The present invention may have potential application, such as use as a replacement of gasoline to run automobiles. For example, the reactions 1a and 1b may be used to run an engine. If corn is used as a source of cellulose, and it costs approximately $0.142/kg. Since 1 mole of corn (i.e. 162 g of corn) produces 5 moles of hydrogen (i.e. 10 g of hydrogen) in reaction 1a, the raw material cost for hydrogen is estimated to be $2.30/kg by the following calculation:
($0.142/kg cellulose)×(162 kg cellulose)/(10 kg H2)=$2.30/kg H2
For a 30% efficiency of conversion of the heat released during the chemical reaction to electrical power, this process of using corn for electrical power generation may cost $0.23/kW-hr, which is estimated as the following:
1 kg H2 generates 33.6 kW-hr of heat when burned to form water in reaction 1b, this is calculated by:
1 kg H2/(2 g/mol H2)=500 mol/kg H2;
3600 kJ=1 kW-hr;
(500 mol/kg H2)×(241.8 kJ/mol H2O)/(3600 kJ/(1 kW-hr))=33.6 kW-hr/kg H2;
($2.30/kg H2)/(33.6 kW-hr/kg H2)/(0.3)=$0.23/kW-hr
It is likely that the cost of cellulose is much less than that of corn. If the cost of cellulose is reduced to half, the electrical power cost may be reduced to $0.115/kW-hr, which is competitive with the current electrical power cost.
Economical Significance of Reactions 2a and 2b for Electrical Power Generation
The reactions 2a and 2b may be used to run an engine. Again, when corn is used as a source of cellulose, and it costs about $0.142/kg. For every 1 mole (162 g) of cellulose, 12 moles (24 g) of hydrogen is produced from Reaction 2a. Hence, this converts to a cost of $0.96/kg hydrogen, which is estimated by the following calculation:
($0.142/kg cellulose)×(162 kg cellulose)/(24 kg H2)=$0.96/kg H2.
For a 30% efficiency for conversion of heat into electrical power, the electrical power may cost $0.095/kW-hr as calculated by:
($0.96/kgH2)/(33.6 kW-hr)/kg H2)/(0.3)=$0.095/kW-hr.
It is known that cellulose in corn stalks makes up 55% of the overall weight of the corn, but the corn stalks cost less than corn. This may reduce the electrical power cost to a range of $0.04/kW-hr. Hence, Reactions 2a and 2b may be more cost effective than Reactions 1a and 1b if only hydrogen burning is considered without burning residual carbon obtained in Reaction 1a. Since in Reaction 1a, for every 1 mole of cellulose, 5 moles of hydrogen are generated. However, in Reaction 2a, for every 1 mole of cellulose, 12 moles of hydrogen are generated.
Potential Application in Automotives
In current automobile use, cars get from 15 to 60 miles per gallon gasoline depending upon the size or type of vehicles. At $3.00 per gallon, the cost per mile is $0.05 to 0.20 per mile. If 1 gallon of gasoline contains 36 kW-hr, gasoline fuel efficiencies consequently range from 0.42 miles/kW-hr (estimated by 15 miles/gallon=15 miles/36 kW-hr) for a low mileage SUV to 1.67 miles/kW-hr (estimated by 60 miles/gallon=60/36 kW-hr) for high efficiency hybrid, with an average vehicle having about 0.75 miles/kW-hr.
The cellulose reactions 2a and 2b of the present invention may have several unique features for automotive applications. First of all, by utilizing the waste heat from the engine to heat up the reaction chamber for hydrogen production, it may potentially recapture the energy of 487 kJ/mol that is the heat used to form water vapor at 400° C. and to heat cellulose as discussed above. This may improve the energy output by 17% that is equal to (487 kJ/mol)/(2902 kJ/mol).
Furthermore, the water vapor generated from hydrogen burn in reaction 2b may be re-circulated into the hydrogen generation chamber so that the water usage would only be the initial one to start the cellulose process. As shown in reactions 2a and 2b, 12 moles of water are released from each mole of cellulose converted. If the water from reaction 2b is reused without any loss, 5 net moles of water are created from cellulose in reactions 2a and 2b. By proper use and capture of the generated water from Reaction 2b, no net water is needed in sustaining the cellulose reaction process. This may eliminate an initial concern that the weight of 126 g (7 moles) of water for 162 g (1 mole) of cellulose in Reaction 2a would be an additional burden to the automobiles.
Additionally, the system for conversion of cellulose into hydrogen for power generation may reduce the production of carbon dioxide generation, when compared to the use of gasoline. This may help with easing the concern of global warming issue. For 1 mile per kW-hr as discussed earlier on, the carbon dioxide release in reaction 2a for one mole of cellulose may be estimated by:
(6×44 g CO2)/(12×2 g H2)=11 g CO2/gH2
(11 kg CO2/kg H2)/(33.6 kW-hr/kgH2)/(1 mile/kW-hr)=0.33 kg CO2/mile
In contrast, gasoline releases about 9 kg carbon dioxide per gallon. If a car gets 28 miles/gallon gasoline, the carbon dioxide release from 1 mole of cellulose is equal to:
28 miles/gallon×0.33 kg CO2/mile=9.24 kg CO2/gallon
This is approximately equivalent to that released from gasoline. However, the cellulose process is renewable. If it is possible to achieve 5 miles/kW-hr H2 that is 5 times of the conservative estimation of 1 mile/kW-hr H2, then the hydrogen burn would be the equivalent to 5×28=140 miles/gallon gasoline equivalent release of carbon dioxide. Therefore, relatively less carbon dioxide may be produced from hydrogen burn.
To predict whether it is possible to use corn as a source of cellulose, an estimation is done as follows: A typical acre of Iowa farmland grows about 10,000 kg of cellulose and kernel corn. Using Reaction 2a, this 10,000 kg of corn produces 1900 kg of hydrogen or 76 MW-hr of heat that is 23 MW-hr of electrical power at 30% efficiency.
Next, let us determine how effective this may be for automobile uses. It is known that 243 million private automobiles drove 1660 billion miles in 2005. To replace all of the gasoline usages, it may require 49 billion kg of hydrogen. If the production of hydrogen is at 1900 kg H2/acre, a 26 million acres of corn field is needed to provide the gasoline usages in U.S.A., that is a farmland of 200 miles square for production of corn. To replace 10% of the fuel used in U.S.A., it may require a corn field of 64 miles square.
In a broader scope, the world power consumption is 15 TW. The total annual energy consumption is 15 TW×8760 hr=131, 400 TW-hr. This would require:
(131,400×1012 W-hr)/(33,600 W-hr/kg H2)=3.9×1012 kg H2
This in turn would demand a corn field of 3.125 million square miles as calculated by:
(3.9×1012 kgH2)/(1900 kg H2/acre)=2 billion acres=3.125 million square miles.
A land of 3.125 million square miles represents 5.4% of the total world land area. With higher efficiencies, this area may be reduced to 1% of the total world land area. It is also possible that lower conversion efficiencies may move the numbers higher.
In addition to using corn as a source of cellulose, paper may be another source of cellulose. Currently, U.S.A. uses approximately 100 billion kg of paper annually. This quantity may be sufficient to supply all of the private automotive usages if the automotives get 3 miles/kW-hr.
Other Potential Applications
The process for conversion of cellulose into hydrogen may enhance the recycling of cellulose products and turn cellulose waste into power generation. For instance, the waste of cellulose includes forest floors that currently are not economical to recover, but present a serious fire hazard. If it becomes economical to recycle the cellulose waste through the use of the present invention, the hazard problem may be reduced. Other cellulose waste that currently ends up in the land fills may also be utilized through recycling.
This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/645,592, entitled “CONVERSION OF C—O—H COMPOUNDS INTO HYDROGEN FOR POWER OR HEAT GENERATION,” filed Oct. 10, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,696,775 B2 issued Apr. 15, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/430,616, entitled “CONVERSION OF C—O—H COMPOUNDS INTO HYDROGEN FOR POWER OR HEAT GENERATION,” filed Apr. 27, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,303,676, issued Nov. 6, 2012, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/033,740, entitled “CONVERSION OF CELLULOSE INTOR HYDROGEN FOR POWER GENERATION,” filed Feb. 19, 2008, by Samuel C. Weaver et al., the entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.
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