Electrostatic/electrostrictive actuation of elastomer structures using compliant electrodes

Abstract

A valve structure comprises an elastomeric block formed with first and second microfabricated recesses separated by a membrane portion of the elastomeric block. The valve is actuated by positioning a compliant electrode on a first side of the first recess proximate to and in physical communication with the membrane. Where the valve is to be electrostatically actuated, a second electrode is positioned on a second side of the first recess opposite the first side. Application of a potential difference across the electrodes causes the compliant electrode and the membrane to be attracted into the flow channel. Where the valve is to be electrostrictively actuated, a second electrode is positioned on the same side of the recess as the compliant electrode. Application of a potential difference across the electrodes causes the electrodes to be attracted such that elastomer membrane portion material between them is compressed and bows into the flow channel. Either of the electrostrictively or the electrostatically-actuated valve structures may include an electrically-conducting fluid in the second recess to serve as the compliant electrode.

Description

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0002] PCT Application WO 01/01025 (“the '025 application), published Jan. 4, 2001, describes in detail manufacture and operation of pump and valve systems microfabricated from elastomer materials. The '025 application is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

[0003] FIG. 7B shows a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of a non-actuated valve structure described in the '025 application. The valve structure comprises control recess 32 oriented orthogonal relative to underlying flow channel 30. Control recess 32 is separated from flow channel 30 by elastomer membrane 25. Membrane 25 is created from the same elastomeric material in which control recess 32 is formed. The floor of flow channel 30 may be formed from a rigid non-elastomeric substrate 14 such as glass, or may be formed from an underlying elastomer layer.

[0004] During operation, membrane 25 experiences an actuation force that causes it to deflect into and thereby obstruct a flow of material through the underlying flow channel. This is shown in FIG. 7H, which is a cross-sectional view of the valve structure of FIG. 7B in an actuated state. As described in detail in the '025 application, the actuation force displacing membrane 25 into the flow channel can take many forms, including but not limited to elevated pneumatic or hydraulic pressure within control recess 32 relative to flow channel 30.

[0005] Given the large number of potential applications for elastomeric microfluidic handling systems described in the '025 application, it is seen that alternative structures and methods for actuation are desirable.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0006] A valve structure comprises an elastomeric block formed with first and second microfabricated recesses separated by a membrane portion of the elastomeric block. The valve is actuated by positioning a compliant electrode on a first side of the first recess proximate to and in physical communication with the membrane. Where the valve is to be electrostatically actuated, a second electrode is positioned on a second side of the first recess opposite the first side. Application of a potential difference across the electrodes causes the compliant electrode and the membrane to be attracted into the flow channel. Where the valve is to be electrostrictively actuated, a second electrode is positioned on the same side of the recess as the compliant electrode. Application of a potential difference across the electrodes causes the electrodes to be attracted such that elastomer material between them is compressed and bows into the flow channel. Either of the electrostrictively or the electrostatically-actuated valve structures may include an electrically-conducting fluid in the control channel to serve as the compliant electrode.

[0007] An embodiment of a method for actuating a valve structure in accordance with the present invention comprises applying a potential difference between a compliant electrode and a second electrode positioned on opposite sides of a first microfabricated recess of an elastomeric block. The compliant electrode is attracted to the second electrode and an associated elastomeric membrane separating the first microfabricated recess from a second microfabricated recess is drawn into the first recess.

[0008] These and other embodiments of the present invention, as well as its advantages and features, are described in more detail in conjunction with the text below and attached figures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0009] FIG. 1 is an illustration of a first elastomeric layer formed on top of a micromachined mold.

[0010] FIG. 2 is an illustration of a second elastomeric layer formed on top of a micromachined mold.

[0011] FIG. 3 is an illustration of the elastomeric layer of FIG. 2 removed from the micromachined mold and positioned over the top of the elastomeric layer of FIG. 1

[0012] FIG. 4 is an illustration corresponding to FIG. 3, but showing the second elastomeric layer positioned on top of the first elastomeric layer.

[0013] FIG. 5 is an illustration corresponding to FIG. 4, but showing the first and second elastomeric layers bonded together.

[0014] FIG. 6 is an illustration corresponding to FIG. 5, but showing the first micromachined mold removed and a planar substrate positioned in its place.

[0015] FIG. 7A is an illustration corresponding to FIG. 6, but showing the elastomeric structure sealed onto the planar substrate.

[0016] FIGS. 7B is a front sectional view corresponding to FIG. 7A, showing an open flow channel.

[0017] FIGS. 7C-7G are illustrations showing steps of a method for forming an elastomeric structure having a membrane formed from a separate elastomeric layer.

[0018] FIGS. 7H is a front sectional view corresponding to FIG. 7A, showing a closed flow channel.

[0019] FIGS. 8A and 8B illustrate valve opening vs. applied pressure for various flow channels.

[0020] FIG. 9 illustrates time response of a 100 μm×100 μm×100 μm RTV microvalve.

[0021] FIG. 10 is an enlarged cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a valve having a square flow channel.

[0022] FIG. 11 is an enlarged cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a valve having an arched flow channel.

[0023] FIG. 12A is a top schematic view of an on/off valve.

[0024] FIG. 12B is a sectional elevation view along line 23B-23B in FIG. 12A

[0025] FIG. 13A is a top schematic view of a peristaltic pumping system.

[0026] FIG. 13B is a sectional elevation view along line 24B-24B in FIG. 13A

[0027] FIG. 14 is a graph showing experimentally achieved pumping rates vs. frequency for an embodiment of the peristaltic pumping system of FIG. 13.

[0028] FIG. 15A is a top schematic view of one control line actuating multiple flow lines simultaneously.

[0029] FIG. 15B is a sectional elevation view along line 26B-26B in FIG. 15A

[0030] FIG. 16 is a schematic illustration of a multiplexed system adapted to permit flow through various channels.

[0031] FIG. 17A is a plan view of a flow layer of an addressable reaction chamber structure.

[0032] FIG. 17B is a bottom plan view of a control channel layer of an addressable reaction chamber structure.

[0033] FIG. 17C is an exploded perspective view of the addressable reaction chamber structure formed by bonding the control channel layer of FIG. 17B to the top of the flow layer of FIG. 17A.

[0034] FIG. 17D is a sectional elevation view corresponding to FIG. 17C, taken along line 28D-28D in FIG. 17C.

[0035] FIG. 18 is a schematic of a system adapted to selectively direct fluid flow into any of an array of reaction wells.

[0036] FIG. 19 is a schematic of a system adapted for selectable lateral flow between parallel flow channels.

[0037] FIG. 20A is a bottom plan view of first layer (i.e.: the flow channel layer) of elastomer of a switchable flow array.

[0038] FIG. 20B is a bottom plan view of a control channel layer of a switchable flow array.

[0039] FIG. 20C shows the alignment of the first layer of elastomer of FIG. 20A with one set of control channels in the second layer of elastomer of FIG. 20B.

[0040] FIG. 20D also shows the alignment of the first layer of elastomer of FIG. 20A with the other set of control channels in the second layer of elastomer of FIG. 20B.

[0041] FIGS. 21A-21J show views of one embodiment of a normally-closed valve structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0042] FIGS. 22A and 22B show plan views illustrating operation of one embodiment of a side-actuated valve structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0043] FIG. 23 shows a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of a composite structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0044] FIG. 24 shows a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of a composite structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0045] FIG. 25 shows a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of a composite structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0046] FIGS. 26A-26D show plan views illustrating operation of one embodiment of a cell pen structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0047] FIGS. 27A-27B show plan and cross-sectional views illustrating operation of one embodiment of a cell cage structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0048] FIGS. 28A-28B show plan views of operation of a mixing structure utilizing cross-channel injection in accordance with the embodiment of the present invention.

[0049] FIGS. 29A-29D illustrate cross-sectional views of metering by volume exclusion in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

[0050] FIG. 30A shows a simplified cross-sectional view of one embodiment of an electrostatically actuated valve structure in a nonactuated state. FIG. 30B shows a simplified cross-sectional view of the valve structure of FIG. 30A in an actuated state.

[0051] FIG. 31A shows a simplified cross-sectional view of an alternative embodiment of an electrostatically actuated valve structure in a nonactuated state. FIG. 31B shows a simplified cross-sectional view of the valve structure of FIG. 31A in an actuated state.

[0052] FIG. 32A shows a simplified cross-sectional view of another alternative embodiment of an electrostatically actuated valve structure in a nonactuated state. FIG. 32B shows a simplified cross-sectional view of the valve structure of FIG. 32A in an actuated state.

[0053] FIG. 33A shows a simplified cross-sectional view of still another electrostatically actuated valve structure in a nonactuated state. FIG. 33B shows a simplified cross-sectional view of the valve structure of FIG. 33A in an actuated state.

[0054] FIG. 34A shows a simplified cross-sectional view of one embodiment of an electrostrictively actuated valve structure in a nonactuated state. FIG. 34B shows a simplified cross-sectional view of the valve structure of FIG. 34A in an actuated state.

[0055] FIG. 35A shows a simplified cross-sectional view of another embodiment of an electrostrictively actuated valve structure in a nonactuated state. FIG. 35B shows a simplified cross-sectional view of the valve structure of FIG. 35A in an actuated state.

[0056] FIG. 36A shows a simplified cross-sectional view of still another embodiment of an electrostrictively actuated valve structure in a nonactuated state. FIG. 36B shows a simplified cross-sectional view of the valve structure of FIG. 36A in an actuated state.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESENT INVENTION

[0057] I. Microfabrication Overview

[0058] The following discussion relates to formation of microfabricated fluidic devices utilizing elastomer materials, as described generally in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/826,585 filed Apr. 6, 2001, No. 09/724,784 filed Nov. 28, 2000, and No. 09/605,520, filed Jun. 27, 2000. These patent applications are hereby incorporated by reference.

[0059] 1. Methods of Fabricating

[0060] Exemplary methods of fabricating the present invention are provided herein. It is to be understood that the present invention is not limited to fabrication by one or the other of these methods. Rather, other suitable methods of fabricating the present microstructures, including modifying the present methods, are also contemplated.

[0061] FIGS. 1 to 7B illustrate sequential steps of a first preferred method of fabricating the present microstructure, (which may be used as a pump or valve). FIGS. 8 to 18 illustrate sequential steps of a second preferred method of fabricating the present microstructure which also may be used as a valve or as pump component.

[0062] As will be explained, the preferred method of FIGS. 1 to 7B involves using pre-cured elastomer layers which are assembled and bonded. In an alternative method, each layer of elastomer may be cured “in place”. In the following description “channel” refers to a recess in the elastomeric structure which can contain a flow of fluid or gas.

[0063] Referring to FIG. 1, a first micro-machined mold 10 is provided. Micro-machined mold 10 may be fabricated by a number of conventional silicon processing methods, including but not limited to photolithography, ion-milling, and electron beam lithography.

[0064] As can be seen, micro-machined mold 10 has a raised line or protrusion 11 extending therealong. A first elastomeric layer 20 is cast on top of mold 10 such that a first recess 21 will be formed in the bottom surface of elastomeric layer 20, (recess 21 corresponding in dimension to protrusion 11), as shown.

[0065] As can be seen in FIG. 2, a second micro-machined mold 12 having a raised protrusion 13 extending therealong is also provided. A second elastomeric layer 22 is cast on top of mold 12, as shown, such that a recess 23 will be formed in its bottom surface corresponding to the dimensions of protrusion 13.

[0066] As can be seen in the sequential steps illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 4, second elastomeric layer 22 is then removed from mold 12 and placed on top of first elastomeric layer 20. As can be seen, recess 23 extending along the bottom surface of second elastomeric layer 22 will form a flow channel 32.

[0067] Referring to FIG. 5, the separate first and second elastomeric layers 20 and 22 (FIG. 4) are then bonded together to form an integrated (i.e.: monolithic) elastomeric structure 24.

[0068] As can been seen in the sequential step of FIGS. 6 and 7A, elastomeric structure 24 is then removed from mold 10 and positioned on top of a planar substrate 14. As can be seen in FIGS. 7A and 7B, when elastomeric structure 24 has been sealed at its bottom surface to planar substrate 14, recess 21 will form a flow channel 30.

[0069] The present elastomeric structures form a reversible hermetic seal with nearly any smooth planar substrate. An advantage to forming a seal this way is that the elastomeric structures may be peeled up, washed, and re-used. In preferred aspects, planar substrate 14 is glass. A further advantage of using glass is that glass is transparent, allowing optical interrogation of elastomer channels and reservoirs. Alternatively, the-elastomeric structure may be bonded onto a flat elastomer layer by the same method as described above, forming a permanent and high-strength bond. This may prove advantageous when higher back pressures are used.

[0070] As can be seen in FIGS. 7A and 7B, flow channels 30 and 32 are preferably disposed at an angle to one another with a small membrane 25 of substrate 24 separating the top of flow channel 30 from the bottom of flow channel 32.

[0071] In preferred aspects, planar substrate 14 is glass. An advantage of using glass is that the present elastomeric structures may be peeled up, washed and reused. A further advantage of using glass is that optical sensing may be employed. Alternatively, planar substrate 14 may be an elastomer itself, which may prove advantageous when higher back pressures are used.

[0072] The method of fabrication just described may be varied to form a structure having a membrane composed of an elastomeric material different than that forming the walls of the channels of the device. This variant fabrication method is illustrated in FIGS. 7C-7G.

[0073] Referring to FIG. 7C, a first micro-machined mold 10 is provided. Micro-machined mold 10 has a raised line or protrusion 11 extending therealong. In FIG. 7D, first elastomeric layer 20 is cast on top of first micro-machined mold 10 such that the top of the first elastomeric layer 20 is flush with the top of raised line or protrusion 11. This may be accomplished by carefully controlling the volume of elastomeric material spun onto mold 10 relative to the known height of raised line 11. Alternatively, the desired shape could be formed by injection molding.

[0074] In FIG. 7E, second micro-machined mold 12 having a raised protrusion 13 extending therealong is also provided. Second elastomeric layer 22 is cast on top of second mold 12 as shown, such that recess 23 is formed in its bottom surface corresponding to the dimensions of protrusion 13.

[0075] In FIG. 7F, second elastomeric layer 22 is removed from mold 12 and placed on top of third elastomeric layer 222. Second elastomeric layer 22 is bonded to third elastomeric layer 20 to form integral elastomeric block 224 using techniques described in detail below. At this point in the process, recess 23 formerly occupied by raised line 13 will form flow channel 23.

[0076] In FIG. 7G, elastomeric block 224 is placed on top of first micro-machined mold 10 and first elastomeric layer 20. Elastomeric block and first elastomeric layer 20 are then bonded together to form an integrated (i.e.: monolithic) elastomeric structure 24 having a membrane composed of a separate elastomeric layer 222.

[0077] When elastomeric structure 24 has been sealed at its bottom surface to a planar substrate in the manner described above in connection with FIG. 7A, the recess formerly occupied by raised line 11 will form flow channel 30.

[0078] The variant fabrication method illustrated above in conjunction with FIGS. 7C-7G offers the advantage of permitting the membrane portion to be composed of a separate material than the elastomeric material of the remainder of the structure. This is important because the thickness and elastic properties of the membrane play a key role in operation of the device. Moreover, this method allows the separate elastomer layer to readily be subjected to conditioning prior to incorporation into the elastomer structure. As discussed in detail below, examples of potentially desirable condition include the introduction of magnetic or electrically conducting species to permit actuation of the membrane, and/or the introduction of dopant into the membrane in order to alter its elasticity.

[0079] While the above method is illustrated in connection with forming various shaped elastomeric layers formed by replication molding on top of a micromachined mold, the present invention is not limited to this technique. Other techniques could be employed to form the individual layers of shaped elastomeric material that are to be bonded together. For example, a shaped layer of elastomeric material could be formed by laser cutting or injection molding, or by methods utilizing chemical etching and/or sacrificial materials as discussed below in conjunction with the second exemplary method.

[0080] An alternative method fabricates a patterned elastomer structure utilizing development of photoresist encapsulated within elastomer material. However, the methods in accordance with the present invention are not limited to utilizing photoresist. Other materials such as metals could also serve as sacrificial materials to be removed selective to the surrounding elastomer material, and the method would remain within the scope of the present invention. For example, gold metal may be etched selective to RTV 615 elastomer utilizing the appropriate chemical mixture.

[0081] 2. Layer and Channel Dimensions

[0082] Microfabricated refers to the size of features of an elastomeric structure fabricated in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. In general, variation in at least one dimension of microfabricated structures is controlled to the micron level, with at least one dimension being microscopic (i.e. below 1000 μm). Microfabrication typically involves semiconductor or MEMS fabrication techniques such as photolithography and spincoating that are designed for to produce feature dimensions on the microscopic level, with at least some of the dimension of the microfabricated structure requiring a microscope to reasonably resolve/image the structure.

[0083] In preferred aspects, flow channels 30, 32, 60 and 62 preferably have width-to-depth ratios of about 10:1. A non-exclusive list of other ranges of width-to-depth ratios in accordance with embodiments of the present invention is 0.1:1 to 100:1, more preferably 1:1 to 50:1, more preferably 2:1 to 20:1, and most preferably 3:1 to 15:1. In an exemplary aspect, flow channels 30, 32, 60 and 62 have widths of about 1 to 1000 microns. A non-exclusive list of other ranges of widths of flow channels in accordance with embodiments of the present invention is 0.01 to 1000 microns, more preferably 0.05 to 1000 microns, more preferably 0.2 to 500 microns, more preferably 1 to 250 microns, and most preferably 10 to 200 microns. Exemplary channel widths include 0.1 μm, 1 μm, 2 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 20 μm, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 60 μm, 70 μm, 80 μm, 90 μm, 100 μm, 110 μm, 120 μm, 130 μm, 140 μm, 150 μm, 160 μm, 170 μm, 180 μm, 190 μm, 200 μm, 210 μm, 220 μm, 230 μm, 240 μm, and 250 μm.

[0084] Flow channels 30, 32, 60, and 62 have depths of about 1 to 100 microns. A nonexclusive list of other ranges of depths of flow channels in accordance with embodiments of the present invention is 0.01 to 1000 microns, more preferably 0.05 to 500 microns, more preferably 0.2 to 250 microns, and more preferably 1 to 100 microns, more preferably 2 to 20 microns, and most preferably 5 to 10 microns. Exemplary channel depths include including 0.01 μm, 0.02 μm, 0.05 μm, 0.1 μm, 0.2 μm, 0.5 μm, 1 μm, 2 μm, 3 μm, 4 μm, 5 μm, 7.5 μm, 10 μm, 12.5 μm, 15 μm, 17.5 μm, 20 μm, 22.5 μm, 25 m, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 75 μm, 100 μm, 150 μm, 200 μm, and 250 μm.

[0085] The flow channels are not limited to these specific dimension ranges and examples given above, and may vary in width in order to affect the magnitude of force required to deflect the membrane as discussed at length below in conjunction with FIG. 27. For example, extremely narrow flow channels having a width on the order of 0.01 μm may be useful in optical and other applications, as discussed in detail below. Elastomeric structures which include portions having channels of even greater width than described above are also contemplated by the present invention, and examples of applications of utilizing such wider flow channels include fluid reservoir and mixing channel structures.

[0086] The Elastomeric layers may be cast thick for mechanical stability. In an exemplary embodiment, elastomeric layer 22 of FIG. 1 is 50 microns to several centimeters thick, and more preferably approximately 4 mm thick. A non-exclusive list of ranges of thickness of the elastomer layer in accordance with other embodiments of the present invention is between about 0.1 micron to 10 cm, 1 micron to 5 cm, 10 microns to 2 cm, 100 microns to 10 mm.

[0087] Accordingly, membrane 25 of FIG. 7B separating flow channels 30 and 32 has a typical thickness of between about 0.01 and 1000 microns, more preferably 0.05 to 500 microns, more preferably 0.2 to 250, more preferably 1 to 100 microns, more preferably 2 to 50 microns, and most preferably 5 to 40 microns. As such, the thickness of elastomeric layer 22 is about 100 times the thickness of elastomeric layer 20. Exemplary membrane thicknesses include 0.01 μm, 0.02 μm, 0.03 μm, 0.05 μm, 0.1 μm, 0.2 μm, 0.3 μm, 0.5 μm, 1 μm, 2 μm, 3 μm, 5 μm, 7.5 μm, 10 μm, 12.5 μm, 15 μm, 17.5 μm, 20 μm, 22.5 μm, 25 μm, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 75 μm, 100 μm, 150 μm, 200 μm, 250 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 750 μm, and 1000 μm.

[0088] 3. Soft Lithographic Bonding

[0089] Preferably, elastomeric layers are bonded together chemically, using chemistry that is intrinsic to the polymers comprising the patterned elastomer layers. Most preferably, the bonding comprises two component “addition cure” bonding.

[0090] In a preferred aspect, the various layers of elastomer are bound together in a heterogenous bonding in which the layers have a different chemistry. Alternatively, a homogenous bonding may be used in which all layers would be of the same chemistry. Thirdly, the respective elastomer layers may optionally be glued together by an adhesive instead. In a fourth aspect, the elastomeric layers may be thermoset elastomers bonded together by heating.

[0091] In one aspect of homogeneous bonding, the elastomeric layers are composed of the same elastomer material, with the same chemical entity in one layer reacting with the same chemical entity in the other layer to bond the layers together. In one embodiment, bonding between polymer chains of like elastomer layers may result from activation of a crosslinking agent due to light, heat, or chemical reaction with a separate chemical species.

[0092] Alternatively in a heterogeneous aspect, the elastomeric layers are composed of different elastomeric materials, with a first chemical entity in one layer reacting with a second chemical entity in another layer. In one exemplary heterogenous aspect, the bonding process used to bind respective elastomeric layers together may comprise bonding together two layers of RTV 615 silicone. RTV 615 silicone is a two-part addition-cure silicone rubber. Part A contains vinyl groups and catalyst; part B contains silicon hydride (Si—H) groups. The conventional ratio for RTV 615 is 10A: 1B. For bonding, one layer may be made with 30A: 1B (i.e. excess vinyl groups) and the other with 3A: 1B (i.e. excess Si—H groups). Each layer is cured separately. When the two layers are brought into contact and heated at elevated temperature, they bond irreversibly forming a monolithic elastomeric substrate.

[0093] In an exemplary aspect of the present invention, elastomeric structures are formed utilizing Sylgard 182, 184 or 186, or aliphatic urethane diacrylates such as (but not limited to) Ebecryl 270 or Irr 245 from UCB Chemical.

[0094] In one embodiment in accordance with the present invention, two-layer elastomeric structures were fabricated from pure acrylated Urethane Ebe 270. A thin bottom layer was spin coated at 8000 rpm for 15 seconds at 170° C. The top and bottom layers were initially cured under ultraviolet light for 10 minutes under nitrogen utilizing a Model ELC 500 device manufactured by Electrolite corporation. The assembled layers were then cured for an additional 30 minutes. Reaction was catalyzed by a 0.5% vol/vol mixture of Irgacure 500 manufactured by Ciba-Geigy Chemicals. The resulting elastomeric material exhibited moderate elasticity and adhesion to glass.

[0095] In another embodiment in accordance with the present invention, two-layer elastomeric structures were fabricated from a combination of 25% Ebe 270/50% Irr 245/25% isopropyl alcohol for a thin bottom layer, and pure acrylated Urethane Ebe 270 as a top layer. The thin bottom layer was initially cured for 5 min, and the top layer initially cured for 10 minutes, under ultraviolet light under nitrogen utilizing a Model ELC 500 device manufactured by Electrolite corporation. The assembled layers were then cured for an additional 30 minutes. Reaction was catalyzed by a 0.5% vol/vol mixture of Irgacure 500 manufactured by Ciba-Geigy Chemicals. The resulting elastomeric material exhibited moderate elasticity and adhered to glass.

[0096] Alternatively, other bonding methods may be used, including activating the elastomer surface, for example by plasma exposure, so that the elastomer layers/substrate will bond when placed in contact. For example, one possible approach to bonding together elastomer layers composed of the same material is set forth by Duffy et al, “Rapid Prototyping of Microfluidic Systems in Poly (dimethylsiloxane)”, Analytical Chemistry (1998), 70, 4974-4984, incorporated herein by reference. This paper discusses that exposing polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) layers to oxygen plasma causes oxidation of the surface, with irreversible bonding occurring when the two oxidized layers are placed into contact.

[0097] Yet another approach to bonding together successive layers of elastomer is to utilize the adhesive properties of uncured elastomer. Specifically, a thin layer of uncured elastomer such as RTV 615 is applied on top of a first cured elastomeric layer. Next, a second cured elastomeric layer is placed on top of the uncured elastomeric layer. The thin middle layer of uncured elastomer is then cured to produce a monolithic elastomeric structure. Alternatively, uncured elastomer can be applied to the bottom of a first cured elastomer layer, with the first cured elastomer layer placed on top of a second cured elastomer layer. Curing the middle thin elastomer layer again results in formation of a monolithic elastomeric structure.

[0098] Where encapsulation of sacrificial layers is employed to fabricate the elastomer structure, bonding of successive elastomeric layers may be accomplished by pouring uncured elastomer over a previously cured elastomeric layer and any sacrificial material patterned thereupon. Bonding between elastomer layers occurs due to inter-penetration and reaction of the polymer chains of an uncured elastomer layer with the polymer chains of a cured elastomer layer. Subsequent curing of the elastomeric layer will create a bond between the elastomeric layers and create a monolithic elastomeric structure.

[0099] Referring to the first method of FIGS. 1 to 7B, first elastomeric layer 20 may be created by spin-coating an RTV mixture on microfabricated mold 12 at 2000 rpm's for 30 seconds yielding a thickness of approximately 40 microns. Second elastomeric layer 22 may be created by spin-coating an RTV mixture on microfabricated mold 11. Both layers 20 and 22 may be separately baked or cured at about 80° C. for 1.5 hours. The second elastomeric layer 22 may be bonded onto first elastomeric layer 20 at about 80° C. for about 1.5 hours.

[0100] Micromachined molds 10 and 12 may be patterned photoresist on silicon wafers. In an exemplary aspect, a Shipley SJR 5740 photoresist was spun at 2000 rpm patterned with a high resolution transparency film as a mask and then developed yielding an inverse channel of approximately 10 microns in height. When baked at approximately 200° C. for about 30 minutes, the photoresist reflows and the inverse channels become rounded. In preferred aspects, the molds may be treated with trimethylchlorosilane (TMCS) vapor for about a minute before each use in order to prevent adhesion of silicone rubber.

[0101] 4. Suitable Elastomeric Materials

[0102] Allcock et al, Contemporary Polymer Chemistry, 2nd Ed. describes elastomers in general as polymers existing at a temperature between their glass transition temperature and liquefaction temperature. Elastomeric materials exhibit elastic properties because the polymer chains readily undergo torsional motion to permit uncoiling of the backbone chains in response to a force, with the backbone chains recoiling to assume the prior shape in the absence of the force. In general, elastomers deform when force is applied, but then return to their original shape when the force is removed. The elasticity exhibited by elastomeric materials may be characterized by a Young's modulus. Elastomeric materials having a Young's modulus of between about 1 Pa-1 TPa, more preferably between about 10 Pa-100 GPa, more preferably between about 20 Pa-1 GPa, more preferably between about 50 Pa-10 MPa, and more preferably between about 100 Pa-1 MPa are useful in accordance with the present invention, although elastomeric materials having a Young's modulus outside of these ranges could also be utilized depending upon the needs of a particular application.

[0103] The systems of the present invention may be fabricated from a wide variety of elastomers. In an exemplary aspect, the elastomeric layers may preferably be fabricated from silicone rubber. However, other suitable elastomers may also be used.

[0104] In an exemplary aspect of the present invention, the present systems are fabricated from an elastomeric polymer such as GE RTV 615 (formulation), a vinyl-silane crosslinked (type) silicone elastomer (family). However, the present systems are not limited to this one formulation, type or even this family of polymer; rather, nearly any elastomeric polymer is suitable. An important requirement for the preferred method of fabrication of the present microvalves is the ability to bond multiple layers of elastomers together. In the case of multilayer soft lithography, layers of elastomer are cured separately and then bonded together. This scheme requires that cured layers possess sufficient reactivity to bond together. Either the layers may be of the same type, and are capable of bonding to themselves, or they may be of two different types, and are capable of bonding to each other. Other possibilities include the use an adhesive between layers and the use of thermoset elastomers.

[0105] Given the tremendous diversity of polymer chemistries, precursors, synthetic methods, reaction conditions, and potential additives, there are a huge number of possible elastomer systems that could be used to make monolithic elastomeric microvalves and pumps. Variations in the materials used will most likely be driven by the need for particular material properties, i.e. solvent resistance, stiffness, gas permeability, or temperature stability.

[0106] There are many, many types of elastomeric polymers. A brief description of the most common classes of elastomers is presented here, with the intent of showing that even with relatively “standard” polymers, many possibilities for bonding exist. Common elastomeric polymers include polyisoprene, polybutadiene, polychloroprene, polyisobutylene, poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene), the polyurethanes, and silicones.

[0107] Polyisoprene, Polybutadiene, Polychloroprene:

[0108] Polyisoprene, polybutadiene, and polychloroprene are all polymerized from diene monomers, and therefore have one double bond per monomer when polymerized. This double bond allows the polymers to be converted to elastomers by vulcanization (essentially, sulfur is used to form crosslinks between the double bonds by heating). This would easily allow homogeneous multilayer soft lithography by incomplete vulcanization of the layers to be bonded; photoresist encapsulation would be possible by a similar mechanism.

[0109] Polyisobutylene:

[0110] Pure polyisobutylene has no double bonds, but is crosslinked to use as an elastomer by including a small amount (˜1%) of isoprene in the polymerization. The isoprene monomers give pendant double bonds on the polyisobutylene backbone, which may then be vulcanized as above.

[0111] Poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene):

[0112] Poly(styrene-butadiene-styrene) is produced by living anionic polymerization (that is, there is no natural chain-terminating step in the reaction), so “live” polymer ends can exist in the cured polymer. This makes it a natural candidate for the present photoresist encapsulation system (where there will be plenty of unreacted monomer in the liquid layer poured on top of the cured layer).

[0113] Incomplete curing would allow homogeneous multilayer soft lithography (A to A bonding). The chemistry also facilitates making one layer with extra butadiene (“A”) and coupling agent and the other layer (“B”) with a butadiene deficit (for heterogeneous multilayer soft lithography). SBS is a “thermoset elastomer”, meaning that above a certain temperature it melts and becomes plastic (as opposed to elastic); reducing the temperature yields the elastomer again. Thus, layers can be bonded together by heating.

[0114] Polyurethanes:

[0115] Polyurethanes are produced from di-isocyanates (A-A) and di-alcohols or di-amines (B-B); since there are a large variety of di-isocyanates and di-alcohols/amines, the number of different types of polyurethanes is huge. The A vs. B nature of the polymers, however, would make them useful for heterogeneous multilayer soft lithography just as RTV 615 is: by using excess A-A in one layer and excess B-B in the other layer.

[0116] Silicones:

[0117] Silicone polymers probably have the greatest structural variety, and almost certainly have the greatest number of commercially available formulations. The vinyl-to-(Si—H) crosslinking of RTV 615 (which allows both heterogeneous multilayer soft lithography and photoresist encapsulation) has already been discussed, but this is only one of several crosslinking methods used in silicone polymer chemistry.

[0118] 5. Operation of Device

[0119] FIGS. 7B and 7H together show the closing of a first flow channel by pressurizing a second flow channel, with FIG. 7B (a front sectional view cutting through flow channel 32 in corresponding FIG. 7A), showing an open first flow channel 30; with FIG. 7H showing first flow channel 30 closed by pressurization of the second flow channel 32.

[0120] Referring to FIG. 7B, first flow channel 30 and second flow channel 32 are shown. Membrane 25 separates the flow channels, forming the top of first flow channel 30 and the bottom of second flow channel 32. As can be seen, flow channel 30 is “open”.

[0121] As can be seen in FIG. 7H, pressurization of flow channel 32 (either by gas or liquid introduced therein) causes membrane 25 to deflect downward, thereby pinching off flow F passing through flow channel 30. Accordingly, by varying the pressure in channel 32, a linearly actuable valving system is provided such that flow channel 30 can be opened or closed by moving membrane 25 as desired. (For illustration purposes only, channel 30 in FIG. 7G is shown in a “mostly closed” position, rather than a “fully closed” position).

[0122] Since such valves are actuated by moving the roof of the channels themselves (i.e.: moving membrane 25) valves and pumps produced by this technique have a truly zero dead volume, and switching valves made by this technique have a dead volume approximately equal to the active volume of the valve, for example about 100×100×10 μm=100 pL. Such dead volumes and areas consumed by the moving membrane are approximately two orders of magnitude smaller than known conventional microvalves. Smaller and larger valves and switching valves are contemplated in the present invention, and a non-exclusive list of ranges of dead volume includes 1 aL to 1 uL, 100 aL to 100 nL, 1 fL to 10 nL, 100 μL to 1 nL, and 1 pL to 100 pL

[0123] The extremely small volumes capable of being delivered by pumps and valves in accordance with the present invention represent a substantial advantage. Specifically, the smallest” known volumes of fluid capable of being manually metered is around 0.1 μl. The smallest known volumes capable of being metered by automated systems is about ten-times larger (1 ul). Utilizing pumps and valves in accordance with the present invention, volumes of liquid of 10 nl or smaller can routinely be metered and dispensed. The accurate metering of extremely small volumes of fluid enabled by the present invention would be extremely valuable in a large number of biological applications, including diagnostic tests and assays.

[0124] Equation 1 represents a highly simplified mathematical model of deflection of a rectangular, linear, elastic, isotropic plate of uniform thickness by an applied pressure:

w =(BPb4)/(Eh3)  (1), where:

[0125] w=deflection of plate;

[0126] B=shape coefficient (dependent upon length vs. width and support of edges of plate);

[0127] P=applied pressure;

[0128] b=plate width

[0129] E=Young's modulus; and

[0130] h=plate thickness.

[0131] Thus even in this extremely simplified expression, deflection of an elastomeric membrane in response to a pressure will be a function of: the length, width, and thickness of the membrane, the flexibility of the membrane (Young's modulus), and the applied actuation force. Because each of these parameters will vary widely depending upon the actual dimensions and physical composition of a particular elastomeric device in accordance with the present invention, a wide range of membrane thicknesses and elasticities, channel widths, and actuation forces are contemplated by the present invention.

[0132] It should be understood that the formula just presented is only an approximation, since in general the membrane does not have uniform thickness, the membrane thickness is not necessarily small compared to the length and width, and the deflection is not necessarily small compared to length, width, or thickness of the membrane. Nevertheless, the equation serves as a useful guide for adjusting variable parameters to achieve a desired response of deflection versus applied force.

[0133] FIGS. 8A and 8B illustrate valve opening vs. applied pressure for a 100 μm wide first flow channel 30 and a 50 μm wide second flow channel 32. The membrane of this device was formed by a layer of General Electric Silicones RTV 615 having a thickness of approximately 30 μm and a Young's modulus of approximately 750 kPa. FIGS. 21a and 21b show the extent of opening of the valve to be substantially linear over most of the range of applied pressures.

[0134] Air pressure was applied to actuate the membrane of the device through a 10 cm long piece of plastic tubing having an outer diameter of 0.025″ connected to a 25 mm piece of stainless steel hypodermic tubing with an outer diameter of 0.025″ and an inner diameter of 0.013″. This tubing was placed into contact with the control channel by insertion into the elastomeric block in a direction normal to the control channel. Air pressure was applied to the hypodermic tubing from an external LHDA miniature solenoid valve manufactured by Lee Co.

[0135] While control of the flow of material through the device has so far been described utilizing applied gas pressure, other fluids could be used.

[0136] For example, air is compressible, and thus experiences some finite delay between the time of application of pressure by the external solenoid valve and the time that this pressure is experienced by the membrane. In an alternative embodiment of the present invention, pressure could be applied from an external source to a noncompressible fluid such as water or hydraulic oils, resulting in a near-instantaneous transfer of applied pressure to the membrane. However, if the displaced volume of the valve is large or the control channel is narrow, higher viscosity of a control fluid may contribute to delay in actuation. The optimal medium for transferring pressure will therefore depend upon the particular application and device configuration, and both gaseous and liquid media are contemplated by the invention.

[0137] While external applied pressure as described above has been applied by a pump/tank system through a pressure regulator and external miniature valve, other methods, of applying external pressure are also contemplated in the present invention, including gas tanks, compressors, piston systems, and columns of liquid. Also contemplated is the use of naturally occurring pressure sources such as may be found inside living organisms, such as blood pressure, gastric pressure, the pressure present in the cerebro-spinal fluid, pressure present in the intra-ocular space, and the pressure exerted by muscles during normal flexure. Other methods of regulating external pressure are also contemplated, such as miniature valves, pumps, macroscopic peristaltic pumps, pinch valves, and other types of fluid regulating equipment such as is known in the art.

[0138] As can be seen, the response of valves in accordance with embodiments of the present invention have been experimentally shown to be almost perfectly linear over a large portion of its range of travel, with minimal hysteresis. Accordingly, the present valves are ideally suited for microfluidic metering and fluid control. The linearity of the valve response demonstrates that the individual valves are well modeled as Hooke's Law springs. Furthermore, high pressures in the flow channel (i.e.: back pressure) can be countered simply by increasing the actuation pressure. Experimentally, the present inventors have achieved valve closure at back pressures of 70 kPa, but higher pressures are also contemplated. The following is a nonexclusive list of pressure ranges encompassed by the present invention: 10 Pa-25 MPa; 100 Pa-10 Mpa, 1 kPa-1 MPa, 1 kPa-300 kPa, 5 kPa-200 kPa, and 15 kPa-100 kPa.

[0139] While valves and pumps do not require linear actuation to open and close, linear response does allow valves to more easily be used as metering devices. In one embodiment of the invention, the opening of the valve is used to control flow rate by being partially actuated to a known degree of closure. Linear valve actuation makes it easier to determine the amount bf actuation force required to close the valve to a desired degree of closure. Another benefit of linear actuation is that the force required for valve actuation may be easily determined from the pressure in the flow channel. If actuation is linear, increased pressure in the flow channel may be countered by adding the same pressure (force per unit area) to the actuated portion of the valve.

[0140] Linearity of a valve depends on the structure, composition, and method of actuation of the valve structure. Furthermore, whether linearity is a desirable characteristic in a valve depends on the application. Therefore, both linearly and nonlinearly actuable valves are contemplated in the present invention, and the pressure ranges over which a valve is linearly actuable will vary with the specific embodiment.

[0141] FIG. 9 illustrates time response (i.e.: closure of valve as a function of time in response to a change in applied pressure) of a 100 μm×100 μm×10 μm RTV microvalve with 10-cm-long air tubing connected from the chip to a pneumatic valve as described above.

[0142] Two periods of digital control signal, actual air pressure at the end of the tubing and valve opening are shown in FIG. 9. The pressure applied on the control line is 100 kPa, which is substantially higher than the ˜40 kPa required to close the valve. Thus, when closing, the valve is pushed closed with a pressure 60 kPa greater than required. When opening, however, the valve is driven back to its rest position only by its own spring force (≦40 kPa). Thus, τclose is expected to be smaller than τopen. There is also a lag between the control signal and control pressure response, due to the limitations of the miniature valve used to control the pressure. Calling such lags t and the 1/e time constants τ, the values are: topen=3.63 ms, τopen=1.88 ms, tclose=2.15 ms, τclose=0.51 ms. If 3τ each are allowed for opening and closing, the valve runs comfortably at 75 Hz when filled with aqueous solution.

[0143] If one used another actuation method which did not suffer from opening and closing lag, this valve would run at ˜375 Hz. Note also that the spring constant can be adjusted by changing the membrane thickness; this allows optimization for either fast opening or fast closing. The spring constant could also be adjusted by changing the elasticity (Young's modulus) of the membrane, as is possible by introducing dopant into the membrane or by utilizing a different elastomeric material to serve as the membrane (described above in conjunction with FIGS. 7C-7H.)

[0144] When experimentally measuring the valve properties as illustrated in FIG. 9 the valve opening was measured by fluorescence. In these experiments, the flow channel was filled with a solution of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) in buffer (pH≧8) and the fluorescence of a square area occupying the center ˜⅓rd of the channel is monitored on an epi-fluorescence microscope with a photomultiplier tube with a 10 kHz bandwidth. The pressure was monitored with a Wheatstone-bridge pressure sensor (SenSym SCC15GD2) pressurized simultaneously with the control line through nearly identical pneumatic connections.

[0145] 6. Flow Channel Cross Sections

[0146] The flow channels of the present invention may optionally be designed with different cross sectional sizes and shapes, offering different advantages, depending upon their desired application. For example, the cross sectional shape of the lower flow channel may have a curved upper surface, either along its entire length or in the region disposed under an upper cross channel). Such a curved upper surface facilitates valve sealing, as follows.

[0147] Referring to FIG. 10, a cross sectional view (similar to that of FIG. 7B) through flow channels 30 and 32 is shown. As can be seen, flow channel 30 is rectangular in cross sectional shape. In an alternate preferred aspect of the invention, as shown in FIG. 20, the cross-section of a flow channel 30 instead has an upper curved surface.

[0148] Referring first to FIG. 10, when flow channel 32 is pressurized, the membrane portion 25 of elastomeric block 24 separating flow channels 30 and 32 will move downwardly to the successive positions shown by the dotted lines 25A, 25B, 25C, 25D, and 25E. As can be seen, incomplete sealing may possibly result at the edges of flow channel 30 adjacent planar substrate 14.

[0149] In the alternate preferred embodiment of FIG. 11, flow channel 30a has a curved upper wall 25A. When flow channel 32 is pressurized, membrane portion 25 will move downwardly to the successive positions shown by dotted lines 25A2, 25A3, 25A4 and 25A5, with edge portions of the membrane moving first into the flow channel, followed by top membrane portions. An advantage of having such a curved upper surface at membrane 25A is that a more complete seal will be provided when flow channel 32 is pressurized. Specifically, the upper wall of the flow channel 30 will provide a continuous contacting edge against planar substrate 14, thereby avoiding the “island” of contact seen between wall 25 and the bottom of flow channel 30 in FIG. 10.

[0150] Another advantage of having a curved upper flow channel surface at membrane 25A is that the membrane can more readily conform to the shape and volume of the flow channel in response to actuation. Specifically, where a rectangular flow channel is employed, the entire perimeter (2x flow channel height, plus the flow channel width) must be forced into the flow channel. However where an arched flow channel is used, a smaller perimeter of material (only the semi-circular arched portion) must be forced into the channel. In this manner, the membrane requires less change in perimeter for actuation and is therefore more responsive to an applied actuation force to block the flow channel In an alternate aspect, (not illustrated), the bottom of flow channel 30 is rounded such that its curved surface mates with the curved upper wall 25A as seen in FIG. 20 described above.

[0151] In summary, the actual conformational change experienced by the membrane upon actuation will depend upon the configuration of the particular elastomeric structure. Specifically, the conformational change will depend upon the length, width, and thickness profile of the membrane, its attachment to the remainder of the structure, and the height, width, and shape of the flow and control channels and the material properties of the elastomer used. The conformational change may also depend upon the method of actuation, as actuation of the membrane in response to an applied pressure will vary somewhat from actuation in response to a magnetic or electrostatic force.

[0152] Moreover, the desired conformational change in the membrane will also vary depending upon the particular application for the elastomeric structure. In the simplest embodiments described above, the valve may either be open or closed, with metering to control the degree of closure of the valve. In other embodiments however, it may be desirable to alter the shape of the membrane and/or the flow channel in order to achieve more complex flow regulation. For instance, the flow channel could be provided with raised protrusions beneath the membrane portion, such that upon actuation the membrane shuts off only a percentage of the flow through the flow channel, with the percentage of flow blocked insensitive to the applied actuation force.

[0153] Many membrane thickness profiles and flow channel cross-sections are contemplated by the present invention, including rectangular, trapezoidal, circular, ellipsoidal, parabolic, hyperbolic, and polygonal, as well as sections of the above shapes. More complex cross-sectional shapes, such as the embodiment with protrusions discussed immediately above or an embodiment having concavities in the flow channel, are also contemplated by the present invention.

[0154] In addition, while the invention is described primarily above in conjunction with an embodiment wherein the walls and ceiling of the flow channel are formed from elastomer, and the floor of the channel is formed from an underlying substrate, the present invention is not limited to this particular orientation. Walls and floors of channels could also be formed in the underlying substrate, with only the ceiling of the flow channel constructed from elastomer. This elastomer flow channel ceiling would project downward into the channel in response to an applied actuation force, thereby controlling the flow of material through the flow channel. In general, monolithic elastomer structures as described elsewhere in the instant application are preferred for microfluidic applications. However, it may be useful to employ channels formed in the substrate where such an arrangement provides advantages. For instance, a substrate including optical waveguides could be constructed so that the optical waveguides direct light specifically to the side of a microfluidic channel.

[0155] 7. Alternate Valve Actuation Techniques

[0156] In addition to pressure based actuation systems described above, optional electrostatic and magnetic actuation systems are also contemplated, as follows.

[0157] Electrostatic actuation can be accomplished by forming oppositely charged electrodes (which will tend to attract one another when a voltage differential is applied to them) directly into the monolithic elastomeric structure. For example, referring to FIG. 7B, an optional first electrode 70 (shown in phantom) can be positioned on (or in) membrane 25 and an optional second electrode 72 (also shown in phantom) can be positioned on (or in) planar substrate 14. When electrodes 70 and 72 are charged with opposite polarities, an attractive force between the two electrodes will cause membrane 25 to deflect downwardly, thereby closing the “valve” (i.e.: closing flow channel 30).

[0158] For the membrane electrode to be sufficiently conductive to support electrostatic actuation, but not so mechanically stiff so as to impede the valve's motion, a sufficiently flexible electrode must be provided in or over membrane 25. Such an electrode may be provided by a thin metallization layer, doping the polymer with conductive material, or making the surface layer out of a conductive material.

[0159] In an exemplary aspect, the electrode present at the deflecting membrane can be provided by a thin metallization layer which can be provided, for example, by sputtering a thin layer of metal such as 20 nm of gold. In addition to the formation of a metallized membrane by sputtering, other metallization approaches such as chemical epitaxy, evaporation, electroplating, and electroless plating are also available. Physical transfer of a metal layer to the surface of the elastomer is also available, for example by evaporating a metal onto a flat substrate to which it adheres poorly, and then placing the elastomer onto the metal and peeling the metal off of the substrate.

[0160] A conductive electrode 70 may also be formed by depositing carbon black (i.e. Cabot Vulcan XC72R) on the elastomer surface, either by wiping on the dry powder or by exposing the elastomer to a suspension of carbon black in a solvent which causes swelling of the elastomer, (such as a chlorinated solvent in the case of PDMS). Alternatively, the electrode 70 may be formed by constructing the entire layer 20 out of elastomer doped with conductive material (i.e. carbon black or finely divided metal particles). Yet further alternatively, the electrode may be formed by electrostatic deposition, or by a chemical reaction that produces carbon. In experiments conducted by the present inventors, conductivity was shown to increase with carbon black concentration from 5.6×10−16 to about 5×10−3 (Ω-cm)−1. The lower electrode 72, which is not required to move, may be either a compliant electrode as described above, or a conventional electrode such as evaporated gold, a metal plate, or a doped semiconductor electrode.

[0161] Magnetic actuation of the flow channels can be achieved by fabricating the membrane separating the flow channels with a magnetically polarizable material such as iron, or a permanently magnetized material such as polarized NdFeB. In experiments conducted by the present inventors, magnetic silicone was created by the addition of iron powder (about 1 um particle size), up to 20% iron by weight.

[0162] Where the membrane is fabricated with a magnetically polarizable material, the membrane can be actuated by attraction in response to an applied magnetic field Where the membrane is fabricated with a material capable of maintaining permanent magnetization, the material can first be magnetized by exposure to a sufficiently high magnetic field, and then actuated either by attraction or repulsion in response to the polarity of an applied inhomogenous magnetic field.

[0163] The magnetic field causing actuation of the membrane can be generated in a variety of ways. In one embodiment, the magnetic field is generated by an extremely small inductive coil formed in or proximate to the clastomer membrane. The actuation effect of such a magnetic coil would be localized, allowing actuation of individual pump and/or valve structures. Alternatively, the magnetic field could be generated by a larger, more powerful source, in which case actuation would be global and would actuate multiple pump and/or valve structures at one time.

[0164] It is also possible to actuate the device by causing a fluid flow in the control channel based upon the application of thermal energy, either by thermal expansion or by production of gas from liquid. For example, in one alternative embodiment in accordance with the present invention, a pocket of fluid (e.g. in a fluid-filled control channel) is positioned over the flow channel. Fluid in the pocket can be in communication with a temperature variation system, for example a heater. Thermal expansion of the fluid, or conversion of material from the liquid to the gas phase, could result in an increase in pressure, closing the adjacent flow channel. Subsequent cooling of the fluid would relieve pressure and permit the flow channel to open.

[0165] 8. Networked Systems

[0166] FIGS. 12A and 12B show a views of a single on/off valve, identical to the systems set forth above, (for example in FIG. 7A). FIGS. 13A and 13B shows a peristaltic pumping system comprised of a plurality of the single addressable on/off valves as seen in FIG. 12, but networked together. FIG. 14 is a graph showing experimentally achieved pumping rates vs. frequency for the peristaltic pumping system of FIG. 13. FIGS. 15A and 15B show a schematic view of a plurality of flow channels which are controllable by a single control line. This system is also comprised of a plurality of the single addressable on/off valves of FIG. 12, multiplexed together, but in a different arrangement than that of FIG. 12. FIG. 16 is a schematic illustration of a multiplexing system adapted to permit fluid flow through selected channels, comprised of a plurality of the single on/off valves of FIG. 12, joined or networked together.

[0167] Referring first to FIGS. 12A and 12B, a schematic of flow channels 30 and 32 is shown. Flow channel 30 preferably has a fluid (or gas) flow F passing therethrough. Flow channel 32, (which crosses over flow channel 30, as was already explained herein), is pressurized such that membrane 25 separating the flow channels may be depressed into the path of flow channel 30, shutting off the passage of flow F therethrough, as has been explained. As such, “flow channel” 32 can also be referred to as a “control line” which actuates a single valve in flow channel 30. In FIGS. 12 to 15, a plurality of such addressable valves are joined or networked together in various arrangements to produce pumps, capable of peristaltic pumping, and other fluidic logic applications.

[0168] Referring to FIGS. 13A and 13B, a system for peristaltic pumping is provided, as follows. A flow channel 30 has a plurality of generally parallel flow channels (i.e.: control lines) 32A, 32B and 32C passing thereover. By pressurizing control line 32A, flow F through flow channel 30 is shut off under membrane 25A at the intersection of control line 32A and flow channel 30. Similarly, (but not shown), by pressurizing control line 32B, flow F through flow channel 30 is shut off under membrane 25B at the intersection of control line 32B and flow channel 30, etc.

[0169] Each of control lines 32A, 32B, and 32C is separately addressable. Therefore, peristalsis may be actuated by the pattern of actuating 32A and 32C together, followed by 32A, followed by 32A and 32B together, followed by 32B, followed by 32B and C together, etc. This corresponds to a successive “101, 100, 110, 010, 011, 001” pattern, where “0” indicates “valve open” and “1” indicates “valve closed.” This peristaltic pattern is also known as a 120° pattern (referring to the phase angle of actuation between three valves). Other peristaltic patterns are equally possible, including 60° and 90° patterns.

[0170] In experiments performed by the inventors, a pumping rate of 2.35 nL/s was measured by measuring the distance traveled by a column of water in thin (0.5 mm i.d.) tubing; with 100×100×10 μm valves under an actuation pressure of 40 kPa. The pumping rate increased with actuation frequency until approximately 75 Hz, and then was nearly constant until above 200 Hz. The valves and pumps are also quite durable and the elastomer membrane, control channels, or bond have never been observed to fail. In experiments performed by the inventors, none of the valves in the peristaltic pump described herein show any sign of wear or fatigue after more than 4 million actuations. In addition to their durability, they are also gentle. A solution of E. Coli pumped through a channel and tested for viability showed a 94% survival rate.

[0171] FIG. 14 is a graph showing experimentally achieved pumping rates vs. frequency for the peristaltic pumping system of FIG. 13.

[0172] FIGS. 15A and 15B illustrates another way of assembling a plurality of the addressable valves of FIG. 12. Specifically, a plurality of parallel flow channels 30A, 30B, and 30C are provided. Flow channel (i.e.: control line) 32 passes thereover across flow channels 30A, 30B, and 30C. Pressurization of control line 32 simultaneously shuts off flows F1, F2 and F3 by depressing membranes 25A, 25B, and 25C located at the intersections of control line 32 and flow channels 30A, 30B, and 30C.

[0173] FIG. 16 is a schematic illustration of a multiplexing system adapted to selectively permit fluid to flow through selected channels, as follows. The downward deflection of membranes separating the respective flow channels from a control line passing thereabove (for example, membranes 25A, 25B, and 25C in FIGS. 15A and 15B) depends strongly upon the membrane dimensions. Accordingly, by varying the widths of flow channel control line 32 in FIGS. 15A and 15B, it is possible to have a control line pass over multiple flow channels, yet only actuate (i.e.: seal) desired flow channels. FIG. 16 illustrates a schematic of such a system, as follows.

[0174] A plurality of parallel flow channels 30A, 30B, 30C, 30D, 30E and 30F are positioned under a plurality of parallel control lines 32A, 32B, 32C, 32D, 32E and 32F. Control channels 32A, 32B, 32C, 32D, 32E and 32F are adapted to shut off fluid flows F1, F2, F3, F4, F5 and F6 passing through parallel flow channels 30A, 30B, 30C, 30D, 30E and 30F using any of the valving systems described above, with the following modification.

[0175] Each of control lines 32A, 32B, 32C, 32D, 32E and 32F have both wide and narrow portions. For example, control line 32A is wide in locations disposed over flow channels 30A, 30C and 30E. Similarly, control line 32B is wide in locations disposed over flow channels 30B, 30D and 30F, and control line 32C is wide in locations disposed over flow channels 30A, 30B, 30E and 30F.

[0176] At the locations where the respective control line is wide, its pressurization will cause the membrane (25) separating the flow channel and the control line to depress significantly into the flow channel, thereby blocking the flow passage therethrough. Conversely, in the locations where the respective control line is narrow, membrane (25) will also be narrow. Accordingly, the same degree of pressurization will not result in membrane (25) becoming depressed into the flow channel (30). Therefore, fluid passage thereunder will not be blocked.

[0177] For example, when control line 32A is pressurized, it will block flows F1, F3 and F5 in flow channels 30A, 30C and 30E. Similarly, when control line 32C is pressurized, it will block flows F1, F2, F5 and F6 in flow channels 30A, 30B, 30E and 30F. As can be appreciated, more than one control line can be actuated at the same time. For example, control lines 32A and 32C can be pressurized simultaneously to block all fluid flow except F4 (with 32A blocking F1, F3 and F5; and 32C blocking F1, F2, F5 and F6).

[0178] By selectively pressurizing different control lines (32) both together and in various sequences, a great degree of fluid flow control can be achieved. Moreover, by extending the present system to more than six parallel flow channels (30) and more than four parallel control lines (32), and by varying the positioning of the wide and narrow regions of the control lines, very complex fluid flow control systems may be fabricated. A property of such systems is that it is possible to turn on any one flow channel out of n flow channels with only 2(log2n) control lines.

[0179] 9. Selectively Addressable Reaction Chambers Along Flow Lines In a further embodiment of the invention, illustrated in FIGS. 17A, 17B, 17C and 17D, a system for selectively directing fluid flow into one more of a plurality of reaction chambers disposed along a flow line is provided.

[0180] FIG. 17A shows a top view of a flow channel 30 having a plurality of reaction chambers 80A and 80B disposed therealong. Preferably flow channel 30 and reaction chambers 80A and 80B are formed together as recesses into the bottom surface of a first layer 100 of elastomer.

[0181] FIG. 17B shows a bottom plan view of another elastomeric layer 110 with two control lines 32A and 32B each being generally narrow, but having wide extending portions 33A and 33B formed as recesses therein.

[0182] As seen in the exploded view of FIG. 17C, and assembled view of FIG. 17D, elastomeric layer 110 is placed over elastomeric layer 100. Layers 100 and 110 are then bonded together, and the integrated system operates to selectively direct fluid flow F (through flow channel 30) into either or both of reaction chambers 80A and 80B, as follows. Pressurization of control line 32A will cause the membrane 25 (i.e.: the thin portion of elastomer layer 100 located below extending portion 33A and over regions 82A of reaction chamber 80A) to become depressed, thereby shutting off fluid flow passage in regions 82A, effectively sealing reaction chamber 80 from flow channel 30. As can also be seen, extending portion 33A is wider than the remainder of control line 32A. As such, pressurization of control line 32A will not result in control line 32A sealing flow channel 30.

[0183] As can be appreciated, either or both of control lines 32A and 32B can be actuated at once. When both control lines 32A and 32B are pressurized together, sample flow in flow channel 30 will enter neither of reaction chambers 80A or 80B.

[0184] The concept of selectably controlling fluid introduction into various addressable reaction chambers disposed along a flow line (FIGS. 17A-D) can be combined with concept of selectably controlling fluid flow through one or more of a plurality of parallel flow lines (FIG. 16) to yield a system in which a fluid sample or samples can be can be sent to any particular reaction chamber in an array of reaction chambers. An example of such a system is provided in FIG. 18, in which parallel control channels 32A, 32B and 32C with extending portions 34 (all shown in phantom) selectively direct fluid flows F1 and F2 into any of the array of reaction wells 80A, 80B, 80C or 80D as explained above; while pressurization of control lines 32C and 32D selectively shuts off flows F2 and F1, respectively.

[0185] In yet another novel embodiment, fluid passage between parallel flow channels is possible. Referring to FIG. 19, either or both of control lines 32A or 32D can be depressurized such that fluid flow through lateral passageways 35 (between parallel flow channels 30A and 30B) is permitted. In this aspect of the invention, pressurization of control lines 32C and 32D would shut flow channel 30A between 35A and 35B, and would also shut lateral passageways 35B. As such, flow entering as flow F1 would sequentially travel through 30A, 35A and leave 30B as flow F4.

[0186] 10. Switchable Flow Arrays

[0187] In yet another novel embodiment, fluid passage can be selectively directed to flow in either of two perpendicular directions. An example of such a “switchable flow array” system is provided in FIGS. 20A to 20D. FIG. 20A shows a bottom view of a first layer of elastomer 90, (or any other suitable substrate), having a bottom surface with a pattern of recesses forming a flow channel grid defined by an array of solid posts 92, each having flow channels passing therearound.

[0188] In preferred aspects, an additional layer of elastomer is bound to the top surface of layer 90 such that fluid flow can be selectively directed to move either in direction F1, or perpendicular direction F2. FIG. 20 is a bottom view of the bottom surface of the second layer of elastomer 95 showing recesses formed in the shape of alternating “vertical” control lines 96 and “horizontal” control lines 94. “Vertical” control lines 96 have the same width therealong, whereas “horizontal” control lines 94 have alternating wide and narrow portions, as shown.

[0189] Elastomeric layer 95 is positioned over top of elastomeric layer 90 such that “vertical” control lines 96 are positioned over posts 92 as shown in FIG. 20C and “horizontal” control lines 94 are positioned with their wide portions between posts 92, as shown in FIG. 20D.

[0190] As can be seen in FIG. 20C, when “vertical” control lines 96 are pressurized, the membrane of the integrated structure formed by the elastomeric layer initially positioned between layers 90 and 95 in regions 98 will be deflected downwardly over the array of flow channels such that flow in only able to pass in flow direction F2 (i.e.: vertically), as shown.

[0191] As can be seen in FIG. 20D, when “horizontal” control lines 94 are pressurized, the membrane of the integrated structure formed by the elastomeric layer initially positioned between layers 90 and 95 in regions 99 will be deflected downwardly over the array of flow channels, (but only in the regions where they are widest), such that flow in only able to pass in flow direction F1 (i.e.: horizontally), as shown.

[0192] The design illustrated in FIGS. 20 allows a switchable flow array to be constructed from only two elastomeric layers, with no vertical vias passing between control lines in different elastomeric layers required. If all vertical flow control lines 94 are connected, they may be pressurized from one input. The same is true for all horizontal flow control lines 96.

[0193] 11. Normally-Closed Valve Structure

[0194] FIGS. 7B and 7H above depict a valve structure in which the elastomeric membrane is moveable from a first relaxed position to a second actuated position in which the flow channel is blocked. However, the present invention is not limited to this particular valve configuration.

[0195] FIGS. 21A-21J show a variety of views of a normally-closed valve structure in which the elastomeric membrane is moveable from a first relaxed position blocking a flow channel, to a second actuated position in which the flow channel is open, utilizing a negative control pressure.

[0196] FIG. 21A shows a plan view, and FIG. 21B shows a cross sectional view along line 42B-42B′, of normally-closed valve 4200 in an unactuated state. Flow channel 4202 and control channel 4204 are formed in elastomeric block 4206 overlying substrate 4205. Flow channel 4202 includes a first portion 4202a and a second portion 4202b separated by separating portion 4208. Control channel 4204 overlies separating portion 4208. As shown in FIG. 42B, in its relaxed, unactuated position, separating portion 4008 remains positioned between flow channel portions 4202a and 4202b, interrupting flow channel 4202.

[0197] FIG. 21C shows a cross-sectional view of valve 4200 wherein separating portion 4208 is in an actuated position. When the pressure within control channel 4204 is reduced to below the pressure in the flow channel (for example by vacuum pump), separating portion 4208 experiences an actuating force drawing it into control channel 4204. As a result of this actuation force membrane 4208 projects into control channel 4204, thereby removing the obstacle to a flow of material through flow channel 4202 and creating a passageway 4203. Upon elevation of pressure within control channel 4204, separating portion 4208 will assume its natural position, relaxing back into and obstructing flow channel 4202.

[0198] The behavior of the membrane in response to an actuation force may be changed by varying the width of the overlying control channel. Accordingly, FIGS. 21D-42H show plan and cross-sectional views of an alternative embodiment of a normally-closed valve 4201 in which control channel 4207 is substantially wider than separating portion 4208. As shown in cross-sectional views FIG. 21E-F along line 42E-42E′ of FIG. 21D, because a larger area of elastomeric material is required to be moved during actuation, the actuation force necessary to be applied is reduced.

[0199] FIGS. 21G and H show a cross-sectional views along line 40G-40G′ of FIG. 21D. In comparison with the unactuated valve configuration shown in FIG. 21G, FIG. 21H shows that reduced pressure within wider control channel 4207 may under certain circumstances have the unwanted effect of pulling underlying elastomer 4206 away from substrate 4205, thereby creating undesirable void 4212.

[0200] Accordingly, FIG. 21I shows a plan view, and FIG. 21J shows a cross-sectional view along line 21J-21J′ of FIG. 21I, of valve structure 4220 which avoids this problem by featuring control line 4204 with a minimum width except in segment 4204a overlapping separating portion 4208. As shown in FIG. 21J, even under actuated conditions the narrower cross-section of control channel 4204 reduces the attractive force on the underlying elastomer material 4206, thereby preventing this elastomer material from being drawn away from substrate 4205 and creating an undesirable void.

[0201] While a normally-closed valve structure actuated in response to pressure is shown in FIGS. 21A-21J, a normally-closed valve in accordance with the present invention is not limited to this configuration. For example, the separating portion obstructing the flow channel could alternatively be manipulated by electric or magnetic fields, as described extensively above.

[0202] 12. Side-Actuated Valve

[0203] While the above description has focused upon microfabricated elastomeric valve structures in which a control channel is positioned above and separated by an intervening elastomeric membrane from an underlying flow channel, the present invention is not limited to this configuration. FIGS. 22A and 22B show plan views of one embodiment of a side-actuated valve structure in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

[0204] FIG. 22A shows side-actuated valve structure 4800 in an unactuated position. Flow channel 4802 is formed in elastomeric layer 4804. Control channel 4806 abutting flow channel 4802 is also formed in elastomeric layer 4804. Control channel 4806 is separated from flow channel 4802 by elastomeric membrane portion 4808. A second elastomeric layer (not shown) is bonded over bottom elastomeric layer 4804 to enclose flow channel 4802 and control channel 4806.

[0205] FIG. 22B shows side-actuated valve structure 4800 in an actuated position. In response to a build up of pressure within control channel 4806, membrane 4808 deforms into flow channel 4802, blocking flow channel 4802. Upon release of pressure within control channel 4806, membrane 4808 would relax back into control channel 4806 and open flow channel 4802.

[0206] While a side-actuated valve structure actuated in response to pressure is shown in FIGS. 22A and 22B, a side-actuated valve in accordance with the present invention is not limited to this configuration. For example, the elastomeric membrane portion located between the abutting flow and control channels could alternatively be manipulated by electric or magnetic fields, as described extensively above.

[0207] 13. Composite Structures

[0208] Microfabricated elastomeric structures of the present invention may be combined with non-elastomeric materials to create composite structures. FIG. 23 shows a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of a composite structure in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 23 shows composite valve structure 5700 including first, thin elastomer layer 5702 overlying semiconductor-type substrate 5704 having channel 5706 formed therein. Second, thicker elastomer layer 5708 overlies first elastomer layer 5702. Actuation of first elastomer layer 5702 to drive it into channel 5706, will cause composite structure 5700 to operate as a valve.

[0209] FIG. 24 shows a cross-sectional view of a variation on this theme, wherein thin elastomer layer 5802 is sandwiched between two hard, semiconductor substrates 5804 and 5806, with lower substrate 5804 featuring channel 5808. Again, actuation of thin elastomer layer 5802 to drive it into channel 5808 will cause composite structure 5810 to operate as a valve.

[0210] The structures shown in FIG. 23 or 24 may be fabricated utilizing either the multilayer soft lithography or encapsulation techniques described above. In the multilayer soft lithography method, the elastomer layer(s) would be formed and then placed over the semiconductor substrate bearing the channel. In the encapsulation method, the channel would be first formed in the semiconductor substrate, and then the channel would be filled with a sacrificial material such as photoresist. The elastomer would then be formed in place over the substrate, with removal of the sacrificial material producing the channel overlaid by the elastomer membrane. As is discussed in detail below in connection with bonding of elastomer to other types of materials, the encapsulation approach may result in a stronger seal between the elastomer membrane component and the underlying nonelastomer substrate component.

[0211] As shown in FIGS. 23 and 24, a composite structure in accordance with embodiments of the present invention may include a hard substrate that bears a passive feature such as a channels. However, the present invention is not limited to this approach, and the underlying hard substrate may bear active features that interact with an elastomer component bearing a recess. This is shown in FIG. 25, wherein composite structure 5900 includes elastomer component 5902 containing recess 5904 having walls 5906 and ceiling 5908. Ceiling 5908 forms flexible membrane portion 5909. Elastomer component 5902 is sealed against substantially planar nonelastomeric component 5910 that includes active device 5912. Active device 5912 may interact with material present in recess 5904 and/or flexible membrane portion 5909.

[0212] Many Types of active structures may be present in the nonelastomer substrate. Active structures that could be present in an underlying hard substrate include, but are not limited to, resistors, capacitors, photodiodes, transistors, chemical field effect transistors (chem FET's), amperometric/coulometric electrochemical sensors, fiber optics, fiber optic interconnects, light emitting diodes, laser diodes, vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSEL's), micromirrors, accelerometers, pressure sensors, flow sensors, CMOS imaging arrays, CCD cameras, electronic logic, microprocessors, thermistors, Peltier coolers, waveguides, resistive heaters, chemical sensors, strain gauges, inductors, actuators (including electrostatic, magnetic, electromagnetic, bimetallic, piezoelectric, shape-memory-alloy based, and others), coils, magnets, electromagnets, magnetic sensors (such as those used in hard drives, superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDS) and other types), radio frequency sources and receivers, microwave frequency sources and receivers, sources and receivers for other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, radioactive particle counters, and electrometers.

[0213] As is well known in the art, a vast variety of technologies can be utilized to fabricate active features in semiconductor and other types of hard substrates, including but not limited printed circuit board (PCB) technology, CMOS, surface micromachining, bulk micromachining, printable polymer electronics, and TFT and other amorphous/polycrystalline techniques as are employed to fabricate laptop and flat screen displays.

[0214] A variety of approaches can be employed to seal the elastomeric structure against the nonelastomeric substrate, ranging from the creation of a Van der Waals bond between the elastomeric and nonelastomeric components, to creation of covalent or ionic bonds between the elastomeric and nonelastomeric components of the composite structure. Example approaches to sealing the components together are discussed below, approximately in order of increasing strength.

[0215] A first approach is to rely upon the simple hermetic seal resulting from Van der Waals bonds formed when a substantially planar elastomer layer is placed into contact with a substantially planar layer of a harder, non-elastomer material. In one embodiment, bonding of RTV elastomer to a glass substrate created a composite structure capable of withstanding up to about 3-4 psi of pressure. This may be sufficient for many potential applications.

[0216] A second approach is to utilize a liquid layer to assist in bonding. One example of this involves bonding elastomer to a hard glass substrate, wherein a weakly acidic solution (5 μl HCl in H2O, pH 2) was applied to a glass substrate. The elastomer component was then placed into contact with the glass substrate, and the composite structure baked at 37° C. to remove the water. This resulted in a bond between elastomer and non-elastomer able to withstand a pressure of about 20 psi. In this case, the acid may neutralize silanol groups present on the glass surface, permitting the elastomer and nonelastomer to enter into good Van der Waals contact with each other.

[0217] Exposure to ethanol can also cause device components to adhere together. In one embodiment, an RTV elastomer material and a glass substrate were washed with ethanol and then dried under Nitrogen. The RTV elastomer was then placed into contact with the glass and the combination baked for 3 hours at 80° C. Optionally, the RTV may also be exposed to a vacuum to remove any air bubbles trapped between the slide and the RTV. The strength of the adhesion between elastomer and glass using this method has withstood pressures in excess of 35 psi. The adhesion created using this method is not permanent, and the elastomer may be peeled off of the glass, washed, and resealed against the glass. This ethanol washing approach can also be employed used to cause successive layers of elastomer to bond together with sufficient strength to resist a pressure of 30 psi. In alternative embodiments, chemicals such as other alcohols or diols could be used to promote adhesion between layers.

[0218] An embodiment of a method of promoting adhesion between layers of a microfabricated structure in accordance with the present invention comprises exposing a surface of a first component layer to a chemical, exposing a surface of a second component layer to the chemical, and placing the surface of the first component layer into contact with the surface of the second elastomer layer.

[0219] A third approach is to create a covalent chemical bond between the elastomer component and functional groups introduced onto the surface of a nonelastomer component. Examples of derivitization of a nonelastomer substrate surface to produce such functional groups include exposing a glass substrate to agents such as vinyl silane or aminopropyltriethoxy silane (APTES), which may be useful to allow bonding of the glass to silicone elastomer and polyurethane elastomer materials, respectively.

[0220] A fourth approach is to create a covalent chemical bond between the elastomer component and a functional group native to the surface of the nonelastomer component. For example, RTV elastomer can be created with an excess of vinyl groups on its surface. These vinyl groups can be caused to react with corresponding functional groups present on the exterior of a hard substrate material, for example the Si—H bonds prevalent on the surface of a single crystal silicon substrate after removal of native oxide by etching. In this example, the strength of the bond created between the elastomer component and the nonelastomer component has been observed to exceed the materials strength of the elastomer components.

[0221] 14. Cell Pen/Cell Cage

[0222] In yet a further application of the present invention, an elastomeric structure can be utilized to manipulate organisms or other biological material. FIGS. 26A-26D show plan views of one embodiment of a cell pen structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0223] Cell pen array 4400 features an array of orthogonally-oriented flow channels 4402, with an enlarged “pen” structure 4404 at the intersection of alternating flow channels. Valve 4406 is positioned at the entrance and exit of each pen structure 4404. Peristaltic pump structures 4408 are positioned on each horizontal flow channel and on the vertical flow channels lacking a cell pen structure.

[0224] Cell pen array 4400 of FIG. 26A has been loaded with cells A-H that have been previously sorted. FIGS. 26B-26C show the accessing and removal of individually stored cell C by 1) opening valves 4406 on either side of adjacent pens 4404a and 4404b, 2) pumping horizontal flow channel 4402a to displace cells C and G, and then 3) pumping vertical flow channel 4402b to remove cell C. FIG. 26D shows that second cell G is moved back into its prior position in cell pen array 4400 by reversing the direction of liquid flow through horizontal flow channel 4402a.

[0225] The cell pen array 4404 described above is capable of storing materials within a selected, addressable position for ready access. However, living organisms such as cells may require a continuous intake of foods and expulsion of wastes in order to remain viable. Accordingly, FIGS. 27A and 27B show plan and cross-sectional views (along line 45B-45B′) respectively, of one embodiment of a cell cage structure in accordance with the present invention.

[0226] Cell cage 4500 is formed as an enlarged portion 4500a of a flow channel 4501 in an elastomeric block 4503 in contact with substrate 4505. Cell cage 4500 is similar to an individual cell pen as described above in FIGS. 26A-26D, except that ends 4500b and 4500c of cell cage 4500 do not completely enclose interior region 4500a. Rather, ends 4500a and 4500b of cage 4500 are formed by a plurality of retractable pillars 4502. Pillars 4502 may be part of a membrane structure of a normally-closed valve structure as described extensively above in connection with FIGS. 21A-21J.

[0227] Specifically, control channel 4504 overlies pillars 4502. When the pressure in control channel 4504 is reduced, elastomeric pillars 4502 are drawn upward into control channel 4504, thereby opening end 4500b of cell cage 4500 and permitting a cell to enter. Upon elevation of pressure in control channel 4504, pillars 4502 relax downward against substrate 4505 and prevent a cell from exiting cage 4500.

[0228] Elastomeric pillars 4502 are of a sufficient size and number to prevent movement of a cell out of cage 4500, but also include gaps 4508 which allow the flow of nutrients into cage interior 4500a in order to sustain cell(s) stored therein. Pillars 4502 on opposite end 4500c are similarly configured beneath second control channel 4506 to permit opening of the cage and removal of the cell as desired.

[0229] The cross-flow channel architecture illustrated shown in FIGS. 26A-26D can be used to perform functions other than the cell pen just described. For example, the cross-flow channel architecture can be utilized in mixing applications.

[0230] This is shown in FIGS. 28A-B, which illustrate a plan view of mixing steps performed by a microfabricated structure in accordance another embodiment of the present invention. Specifically, portion 7400 of a microfabricated mixing structure comprises first flow channel 7402 orthogonal to and intersecting with second flow channel 7404. Control channels 7406 overlie flow channels 7402 and 7404 and form valve pairs 7408a-b and 7408c-d that surround each intersection 7412.

[0231] As shown in FIG. 28A, valve pair 7408a-b is initially opened while valve pair 7408c-d is closed, and fluid sample 7410 is flowed to intersection 7412 through flow channel 7402. Valve pair 7408c-d is then actuated, trapping fluid sample 7410 at intersection 7412.

[0232] Next, as shown in FIG. 28B, valve pairs 7408a-b and 7408c-d are opened, such that fluid sample 7410 is injected from intersection 7412 into flow channel 7404 bearing a cross-flow of fluid. The process shown in FIGS. 28A-B can be repeated to accurately dispense any number of fluid samples down cross-flow channel 7404.

[0233] While the embodiment shown and described above in connection with FIGS. 28A-28B utilizes linked valve pairs on opposite sides of the flow channel intersections, this is not required by the present invention. Other configurations, including linking of adjacent valves of an intersection, or independent actuation of each valve surrounding an intersection, are possible to provide the desired flow characteristics. With the independent valve actuation approach however, it should be recognized that separate control structures would be utilized for each valve, complicating device layout.

[0234] 15. Metering By Volume Exclusion

[0235] Many high throughput screening and diagnostic applications call for accurate combination and of different reagents in a reaction chamber. Given that it is frequently necessary to prime the channels of a microfluidic device in order to ensure fluid flow, it may be difficult to ensure mixed solutions do not become diluted or contaminated by the contents of the reaction chamber prior to sample introduction.

[0236] Volume exclusion is one technique enabling precise metering of the introduction of fluids into a reaction chamber. In this approach, a reaction chamber may be completely or partially emptied prior to sample injection. This method reduces contamination from residual contents of the chamber contents, and may be used to accurately meter the introduction of solutions in a reaction chamber.

[0237] Specifically, FIGS. 29A-29D show cross-sectional views of a reaction chamber in which volume exclusion is employed to meter reactants. FIG. 29A shows a cross-sectional view of portion 6300 of a microfluidic device comprising first elastomer layer 6302 overlying second elastomer layer 6304. First elastomer layer 6302 includes control chamber 6306 in fluid communication with a control channel (not shown). Control chamber 6306 overlies and is separated from dead-end reaction chamber 6308 of second elastomer layer 6304 by membrane 6310. Second elastomer layer 6304 further comprises flow channel 6312 leading to dead-end reaction chamber 6308.

[0238] FIG. 29B shows the result of a pressure increase within control chamber 6306. Specifically, increased control chamber pressure causes membrane 6310 to flex downward into reaction chamber 6308, reducing by volume V the effective volume of reaction chamber 6308. This in turn excludes an equivalent volume V of reactant from reaction chamber 6308, such that volume V of first reactant X is output from flow channel 6312. The exact correlation between a pressure increase in control chamber 6306 and the volume of material output from flow channel 6312 can be precisely calibrated.

[0239] As shown in FIG. 29C, while elevated pressure is maintained within control chamber 6306, volume V′ of second reactant Y is placed into contact with flow channel 6312 and reaction chamber 6308.

[0240] In the next step shown in FIG. 29D, pressure within control chamber 6306 is reduced to original levels. As a result, membrane 6310 relaxes and the effective volume of reaction chamber 6308 increases. Volume V of second reactant Y is sucked into the device. By varying the relative size of the reaction and control chambers, it is possible to accurately mix solutions at a specified relative concentration. It is worth noting that the amount of the second reactant Y that is sucked into the device is solely dependent upon the excluded volume V, and is independent of volume V′ of Y made available at the opening of the flow channel.

[0241] While FIGS. 29A-29D show a simple embodiment of the present invention involving a single reaction chamber, in more complex embodiments parallel structures of hundreds or thousands of reaction chambers could be actuated by a pressure increase in a single control line.

[0242] Moreover, while the above description illustrates two reactants being combined at a relative concentration that fixed by the size of the control and reaction chambers, a volume exclusion technique could be employed to combine several reagents at variable concentrations in a single reaction chamber. One possible approach is to use several, separately addressable control chambers above each reaction chamber. An example of this architecture would be to have ten separate control lines instead of a single control chamber, allowing ten equivalent volumes to be pushed out or sucked in.

[0243] Another possible approach would utilize a single control chamber overlying the entire reaction chamber, with the effective volume of the reaction chamber modulated by varying the control chamber pressure. In this manner, analog control over the effective volume of the reaction chamber is possible. Analog volume control would in turn permit the combination of many solutions reactants at arbitrary relative concentrations.

[0244] An embodiment of a method of metering a volume of fluid in accordance with the present invention comprises providing a chamber having a volume in an elastomeric block separated from a control recess by an elastomeric membrane, and supplying a pressure to the control recess such that the membrane is deflected into the chamber and the volume is reduced by a calibrated amount, thereby excluding from the chamber the calibrated volume of fluid.

[0245] II. Electrostatic/Electrostrictive Actuation

[0246] An embodiment of a valve structure in accordance with the present invention comprises an elastomeric block formed with first and second microfabricated recesses separated by a membrane portion of the elastomeric block. The valve is actuated by positioning a compliant electrode on a first side of the first recess proximate to and in physical communication with the membrane.

[0247] Where the valve is to be electrostatically actuated, a second electrode is positioned on a second side of the first recess opposite the first side. Application of a potential difference across the electrodes causes the compliant electrode and the membrane to be attracted into the flow channel.

[0248] Where the valve is to be electrostrictively actuated, a second electrode is positioned on the same side of the recess as the compliant electrode. Application of a potential difference across the electrodes causes the electrodes to be attracted such that elastomer material between them is compressed and bows into the flow channel.

[0249] 1. Electrostatic Actuation

[0250] FIG. 30A shows a simplified cross-sectional view of one embodiment of an electrostatically actuated valve structure in accordance with the present invention in a nonactuated state. Valve structure 6400 comprises control recess 6402 positioned in elastomer material 6403 and oriented orthogonal relative to underlying flow channel 6404. Control recess 6402 is separated from flow channel 6404 by elastomer membrane 6406 formed from the same elastomeric material 6403 in which control recess 6402 is created. Floor 6404a of flow channel 6404 is formed from an underlying substrate 6408. The surface of substrate 6408 bears electrode 6410. Compliant electrode 6412 is positioned within elastomer 6403 over first electrode 6410.

[0251] FIG. 30B shows a simplified cross-sectional view of the valve structure of FIG. 30A in its actuated state. As shown in FIG. 30B, during operation of valve structure 6400, application of a potential difference between electrode 6410 and compliant electrode 6412 across flow channel 6404 causes compliant electrode 6412 to be attracted to electrode 6410. As a result of this attractive force, compliant electrode 6412 and associated membrane portion 6406 are drawn into flow channel 6404. Cessation of a potential difference between electrodes 6410 and 6412 terminates the attractive force, and membrane portion 6406 and compliant electrode 6412 resume their original positions such that flow channel 6404 is no longer obstructed.

[0252] In alternative embodiments in accordance with the present invention, electrically conducting fluids disposed in the control channel may serve as compliant electrodes. This is illustrated in FIGS. 31A-B, which show cross-sectional views of an alternative embodiment of an electrostatically actuated valve structure in nonactuated and actuated states, respectively. The valve structure of FIG. 31A is similar to that of FIGS. 30A-B, except that recess channel 6502 is filled with an electrically-conducting fluid 6505. Examples of such electrically-conducting fluids include but are not limited to colloidal suspensions of conducting particles, ionic solutions, liquid metals, and solutions of conductive polymers. The electrically-conducting fluid within control recess 6502 serves as the compliant electrode structure, such that the electrostatic attraction arising from application of a potential difference between electrode 6510 and the contents of control recess 6502 draws membrane 6506 into flow channel 6504.

[0253] While the embodiments of a valve structure described above in connection with FIGS. 30A-B and 31A-B utilize a lower electrode positioned at the surface of the underlying substrate to accomplish electrostatic actuation, this is not required by the present invention. For example, FIG. 32A shows a simplified cross-sectional view of an alternative embodiment of a valve structure in a nonactuated state. FIG. 32B shows a simplified cross-sectional view of the embodiment of the valve structure of FIG. 32A in an actuated state.

[0254] Valve structure 6600 of FIGS. 32A-B resembles valve structure 6600 of FIGS. 31A-B, except that lower electrode 6610 is embedded at a depth within substrate 6608 rather than at its surface. This orientation of the lower electrode 6610 allows an electric field resulting from application of a potential difference between electrodes 6610 and 6612 to attract overlying compliant electrode 6612 and associated elastomeric membrane 6606 for actuation purposes, but prevents lower electrode 6610 from directly contacting the contents of flow channel 6604.

[0255] The embedded configuration just described is useful in applications where electrode 6610 may undesirably corrode or otherwise react with the contents of the flow channel. It is also useful in embodiments wherein the overlying compliant electrode is located on the ceiling of the flow channel directly beneath the membrane. In such an embodiment, the embedded bottom electrode is prevented from shorting with the upper compliant electrode through direct contact or arcing. However, it is to be understood that embodiments of a valve structure wherein both the compliant electrode and the lower electrode are directly in contact with the flow channel, also fall within the scope of the instant invention.

[0256] FIG. 33A shows a simplified cross-sectional view of yet another embodiment of an electrostatically actuated valve structure in a nonactuated state. FIG. 33B shows a simplified cross-sectional view of one embodiment of the valve structure of FIG. 33A in an actuated state. Valve structure 6700 is similar to the valve structure of FIGS. 32A-B, except that upper compliant electrode 6712 is positioned on the lower surface of membrane 6706 separating control recess 6702 from flow channel 6704. Application of a potential difference between compliant electrode 6712 and lower electrode 6710 across flow channel 6704 draws compliant electrode 6712 and associated membrane 6706 into the flow channel as indicated in FIG. 33B.

[0257] While the above description has focused upon the electrostatic actuation of a valve structure, the present invention is not limited to actuation of this particular structure. For example, the '025 application describes in detail the fabrication of peristaltic pumps, sorters, multiplexers, and other fluid handing structures that could also be actuated by a compliant electrode in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. Moreover, the application of compliant electrostatically actuated electrodes is not limited to fluid handling applications. For example, the '025 application describes a number of non-fluidic structures including optical devices such as micromirror arrays and refractive lenses.

[0258] While the above embodiments illustrate direct actuation of a valve through electrostatic actuation, the present invention is not limited to this mechanism. In an alternative embodiment, a flow channel proximate to an electrostatically-actuated membrane could function as a control channel of a second valve. In a manner analogous to the operation of a bellows, electrostatic actuation of the membrane could change the pressure within the flow channel. Where this flow channel serves as the control channel for a second valve, the membrane of the second valve would in turn be actuated by a pressure differential in the control channel.

[0259] While the above embodiments illustrate valve structures that include a single compliant electrode, a valve structure could utilize a compliant material for both electrode structures. Of course, the degree of movement of each compliant electrode in response to an electric field would vary according to the mass and flexibility of the associated material. Thus where a compliant electrode is deeply embedded in a flexible substrate, or is present within in a rigid substrate, the amount of flexion of the second compliant electrode would be relatively small compared with that of the first compliant electrode that is associated with the membrane.

[0260] 2. Electrostrictive Actuation

[0261] FIG. 34A shows a simplified cross-sectional view of one embodiment of an electrostrictively actuated valve structure in accordance with the present invention in a nonactuated state. Valve structure 6800 is similar to the valve structure of prior FIGS. 30A-B, except that the role of the channels is reversed. Specifically, valve structure 6800 comprises flow channel 6802 positioned in elastomer material 6803 above underlying control recess 6804. Flow channel 6802 is separated from control recess 6804 by elastomer membrane 6806 formed from the same elastomeric material 6803 in which flow channel 6802 is created. First compliant electrode 6810 is formed on one side of membrane 6806 proximate to flow channel 6802, and second compliant electrode 6812 is formed on the opposite side of membrane 6806 proximate to control recess 6804.

[0262] FIG. 34B shows a simplified cross-sectional view of the valve structure of FIG. 34A in its actuated state. As shown in FIG. 34B, during operation of valve structure 6800, application of a potential difference between first compliant electrode 6810 and second compliant electrode 6812 causes attraction between first compliant electrode 6812 and second compliant electrode 6810. As a result of this attractive force, the elastomer material making up membrane 6806 is compressed.

[0263] Compression of elastomer material between the electrodes results in lateral displacement of elastomeric material therebetween, causing membrane 6806 to be reduced in thickness and to bow upward in conformity with the existing arched profile of control recess 6804. As electrostrictively actuated in this matter, bowed membrane 6806 eventually projects into flow channel 6802, blocking it. Where materials are flowed through flow channel 6802, the electrostrictive actuation method just described can be utilized to control this flow.

[0264] As with the electrostatically actuated valves described above, alternative embodiments of electrostrictively-actuated valves in accordance with the present invention may utilize electrically conducting fluids as compliant electrodes. This is illustrated in FIGS. 35A-B, which show cross-sectional views of an alternative embodiment of an electrostrictively-actuated valve structure in nonactuated and actuated states, respectively. Valve structure 6900 of FIG. 35A is similar to that of FIGS. 34A-B, except that the second compliant electrode is electrically conducting fluid 6905 present in control recess 6904. Examples of such electrically-conducting fluids include but are not limited to colloidal suspensions of conducting particles, ionic solutions, liquid metals, and solutions of conductive polymers. The electrically-conducting fluid within control recess 6904 serves as the second compliant electrode, such that the electrostatic attraction arising from application of a potential difference between first compliant electrode 6910 and the contents of control recess 6904 creates an electrostrictive force that compresses the elastomer material between the compliant electrodes. This compression force causes membrane 6906 to bow upward in conformity with the existing arch shape of control recess 6904, eventually projecting into and closing flow channel 6902.

[0265] While the embodiments of an electrostrictively-actuated valve structure described above in connection with FIGS. 34A-B and 35A-B utilize a compliant electrode positioned at the arched base of the membrane in contact with the flow channel, this is not required by the present invention. For example, FIG. 36A shows a simplified cross-sectional view of an alternative embodiment of an electrostrictively-actuated valve structure in a nonactuated state. FIG. 36B shows a simplified cross-sectional view of the embodiment of the valve structure of FIG. 36A in an actuated state.

[0266] Valve structure 7000 of FIGS. 36A-B resembles the valve structure of FIGS. 34A-B, except that upper compliant electrode 7010 is embedded at a depth within membrane 7006 rather than at its upper surface. This orientation of the upper compliant electrode 7010 allows an electric field resulting from application of a potential difference between compliant electrodes 7010 and 7012 to attract underlying compliant electrode 7012 and thereby compress the intervening elastomeric membrane 7006 for purposes of electrostrictive actuation, but prevents compliant upper electrode 7010 from directly contacting the contents of flow channel 7002. The embedded configuration just described is useful in applications where compliant electrode 7010 may undesirably corrode or otherwise react with the contents of the flow channel.

[0267] While the above description has focused upon the electrostrictive actuation of a valve structure for microfluidics applications, the present invention is not limited to actuation of this particular structure. For example, the '025 application describes in detail the fabrication of peristaltic pumps, sorters, multiplexers, and other fluid handing structures that could also be actuated by compliant electrodes in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. Moreover, the application of compliant electrostrictively actuated electrodes is not limited to fluid handling applications. For example, the '025 application describes a number of non-fluidic structures including optical devices such as micromirror arrays and refractive lenses.

[0268] While the above embodiments illustrate direct actuation of a valve through electrostrictive actuation, the present invention is not limited to this mechanism. In an alternative embodiment, a flow channel proximate to an electrostrictively-actuated membrane could function as a control channel of a second valve. In a manner analogous to the operation of a bellows, electrostrictive actuation of the membrane could change the pressure within the flow channel. Where this flow channel serves as the control channel for a second valve, the membrane of the second valve would in turn be actuated by a pressure differential in the control channel.

[0269] It is also important to recognize that the degree of movement of each compliant electrode in response to an electric field, and hence the electrostrictive actuation force, would vary according to the character of materials forming the electrode and the associated membrane material.

[0270] 3. Fabrication Materials and Techniques

[0271] The valve structure shown above may be fabricated according to a number of different methods. As described in detail in the '025 application, one fabrication approach utilizes soft lithography, wherein conventional semiconductor lithographic techniques are employed to pattern raised features on a silicon substrate. Subsequent formation of an elastomer layer over the raised features, followed by removal of the elastomer, results in the formation of channels and recesses in the elastomer. Successive elastomer layers patterned in this manner can be bonded together to form multi-layered structures.

[0272] An alternative fabrication method taught by the '025 application involves the direct patterning of elastomer materials utilizing photolithographic techniques. Channels and recesses formed in the elastomer thereby are then filled with a sacrificial material such as photoresist. Subsequent formation of additional successive elastomer layers over the sacrificial features, followed by removal of sacrificial material entrapped therein (i.e. by exposure to developer), results in formation of valve structures. Fabrication of valve structures utilizing entrapment of sacrificial materials is described in greater detail in the '025 application.

[0273] The electrostatically actuated and electrostrictively actuated valve structures shown above may be fabricated from a variety of combinations of materials. A brief description of the most common classes of elastomer materials has been presented previously.

[0274] Compliant electrodes utilized for actuation of valve structures in accordance with embodiments of the present invention may also be formed from a variety of materials. Published PCT applications WO 01/06579 and WO 01/06575 are incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. These published PCT applications disclose compliant electrode materials, compliant electrode structures, and methods of fabricating compliant electrodes suitable for use in embodiments in accordance with the present invention.

[0275] In one embodiment of the present invention, compliant electrodes may be formed by pattering less-compliant conductive materials to allow flexibility (for instance gold or aluminum). In an alternative embodiment, compliant electrodes may be formed by disposing electrically conducting fluids within a recess or channel. Examples of electrically-conducting fluids which may serve as compliant electrodes in accordance with embodiments of the present invention include but are not limited to colloidal suspensions of conducting particles, ionic solutions, liquid metals, and solutions of conductive polymers.

[0276] In other alternative embodiments, the compliant electrodes may be formed from electroactive polymers. Examples of suitable electroactive polymers that may serve as compliant electrodes include, but are not limited to, NuSil CF19-2186 from NuSil Technology of Carpenteria, California, HS3 silicone and 730 fluorosilicone from Dow Corning of Wilmington, Del., and 4900 VHB acrylic polymer from 3M Corp. of St. Paul, Minn.

[0277] In still other alternative embodiments in accordance with the present invention, compliant electrodes may be formed from elastomer materials featuring electrically conducting species doped or otherwise introduced to impart conductive activity. In general, elastomers described as appropriate for forming structures as described in the '025 patent will also be suitable for the formation of electrostatic actuators, and examples of suitable elastomer materials include, but are not limited to, GE RTV 615 silicone, Sylgard 182, 184 or 186, or aliphatic urethane diacrylates such as (but not limited to) Ebecryl 270 or Irr 245 from UCB Chemical.

[0278] Introduction of conductive species into the polymer of the compliant electrodes could be accomplished in a number of ways. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, conductive metals including but not limited to Au, Ag, Al, Cu, or W can be mixed with the elastomer, deposited or plated onto, or implanted into, a surface of the elastomer. In accordance with other embodiments, conductive greases including colloidal sized conductive particles can be mixed in binder such as silicone that cures to form a conductive semi-solid.

[0279] In other embodiments, carbon may be used as the conductive material. For example, thin layers of carbon fibrils or carbon nanotubules may be applied to impart conductivity. Other examples of carbon-based materials for imparting electrical conductivity include carbon black, graphite, and suspensions or solutions of carbon.

[0280] Other, ionically conductive materials may alternatively be introduced to create a compliant electrode, for example in water-based polymer materials such as glycerol or salt in gelatin, iodine-doped natural rubbers and water based emulsions to which organic salts such as potassium iodide have been added. For hydrophobic polymers that may not adhere to a water-based dopant, the surface of the polymer may be pretreated by plasma etching or with a fine powder such as graphite or carbon black to increase adherence. The various materials described above may also be mixed in droplets from a spray in order to enhance adhesion or other desirable properties.

[0281] While the present invention has been described herein with reference to particular embodiments thereof, a latitude of modification, various changes and substitutions are intended in the foregoing disclosure, and it will be appreciated that in some instances some features of the invention will be employed without a corresponding use of other features without departing from the scope of the invention as set forth. Therefore, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation or material to the teachings of the invention without departing from the essential scope and spirit of the present invention. It is intended that the invention not be limited to the particular embodiment disclosed as the best mode contemplated for carrying out this invention, but that the invention will include all embodiments and equivalents falling within the scope of the claims.

Claims

1. An electrostatically-actuated elastomeric structure comprising: an elastomeric block formed with at least first and second microfabricated recesses therein, said first and second microfabricated recesses separated by a membrane portion of the elastomeric block; a compliant electrode positioned on a first side of the first recess proximate to and in physical communication with the membrane; a second electrode positioned on a second side of the first recess opposite to the first side, at least one of the compliant electrode and the second electrode configured to apply a potential difference across the first recess to draw the compliant electrode and the membrane into the first recess.

2. The structure of claim 1 wherein the second electrode is part of a substrate in contact with the elastomeric block and forming a wall of the first recess.

3. The structure of claim 2 wherein the second electrode is formed on a surface of the substrate in contact with the first recess.

4. The structure of claim 2 wherein the second electrode is embedded at a depth within the substrate proximate to the first recess.

5. The structure of claim 1 wherein the compliant electrode comprises a polymer material selected from the group consisting of NuSil CF19-2186, Dow Corning HS3 silicone, Dow Corning 730 fluorosilicone, 3M 4900 VHB acrylic polymer, GE RTV 615 silicone, Sylgard 182, 184 or 186, and Ebecryl 270 or Irr 245.

6. The structure of claim 1 wherein the compliant electrode comprises an electrically conducting material selected from the group consisting of a metal, graphite, carbon black, a carbon nanotubule or fibril, an ionic solution, a metal colloidal suspension, a carbon colloidal suspension, and a water-based ionic emulsion.

7. The structure of claim 1 wherein the compliant electrode comprises an electrically conductive fluid disposed within the second recess.

8. The structure of claim 1 wherein the second electrode is also compliant.

9. The structure of claim 1 wherein the structure comprises a valve.

10. A method of actuating an elastomeric structure comprising: applying a potential difference between a compliant electrode and a second electrode positioned on opposite sides of a first microfabricated recess of an elastomeric block, such that the compliant electrode is attracted to the second electrode and an associated elastomeric membrane separating the first microfabricated recess from a second microfabricated recess is drawn into the first recess.

11. The method of claim 10 wherein the potential difference is applied between the second electrode and an electrically conducting fluid disposed in the second microfabricated recess.

12. The method of claim 10 wherein the potential difference is applied between the second electrode and a compliant electrode comprising an electroactive polymer.

13. A method of controlling a flow of material in an elastomeric structure comprising applying a potential difference to cause electrostatic actuation of a compliant electrode.

14. The method of claim 13 wherein the flow occurs through a microfluidic channel.

15. An electrostrictively-actuated elastomeric structure comprising: an elastomeric block formed with at least first and second microfabricated recesses therein, said first and second microfabricated recesses being separated by a membrane portion of the elastomeric block; a first compliant electrode positioned on a first side of the membrane proximate to the first recess; a second compliant electrode positioned on a second side of the membrane proximate to the second recess, at least one of the compliant electrode and the second electrode configured to apply a potential difference across the membrane to compress the membrane and cause the membrane to project into the first recess.

16. The structure of claim 15 wherein the second electrode is part of an arched lower surface of the membrane and forms a ceiling of the second recess.

17. The structure of claim 16 wherein the second electrode is formed on the arched lower surface in contact with the second recess.

18. The structure of claim 16 wherein the second electrode is embedded at a depth into the arched lower surface proximate to the second recess.

19. The structure of claim 15 wherein at least one of the first and the second compliant electrodes comprises a polymer material selected from the group consisting of NuSil CF19-2186, Dow Corning HS3 silicone, Dow Corning 730 fluorosilicone, and 3M 4900 VHB acrylic polymer, GE RTV 615 silicone, Sylgard 182, 184 or 186, and Ebecryl 270 or Irr 245.

20. The structure of claim 15 wherein the compliant electrode comprises an electrically conducting material selected from the group consisting of a metal, graphite, carbon black, a carbon nanotubule or fibril, an ionic solution, a metal colloidal suspension, a carbon colloidal suspension, and a water-based ionic emulsion.

21. The structure of claim 15 wherein the second compliant electrode comprises an electrically conductive fluid disposed within the second recess.

22. The structure of claim 15 wherein the structure comprises a valve.

23. A method of actuating an elastomeric structure comprising: applying a potential difference between a first compliant electrode and a second compliant electrode positioned on opposite sides of an elastomeric membrane defined between a first recess and a second recess of an elastomeric block, such that the first compliant electrode is attracted to the second compliant electrode and the membrane is compressed, causing the membrane to bow upward into the first recess.

24. The method of claim 23 wherein the potential difference is applied between the first compliant electrode and an electrically conducting fluid disposed in the second microfabricated recess.

25. The method of claim 23 wherein the potential difference is applied between the first compliant electrode comprising a first electroactive polymer and the second compliant electrode comprising a second electroactive polymer.

26. The method of claim 25 wherein the first and second electroactive polymers are the same material.

27. A method of controlling a flow of material in an elastomeric structure comprising applying a potential difference to cause electrostrictive actuation of a compliant electrode.

28. The method of claim 27 wherein the flow occurs through a microfluidic channel.