Patent Grant
7744907
1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to biotechnology generally and, more specifically, to an ex vivo animal or challenge model as a method to measure protective circuitry directed against parasites and vaccines shown to be protective in the method.
2. State of the Art
Only a few vaccines against parasites are commercially available. Most of these vaccines are based on attenuated live parasites that induce natural, protective immunity and cause less severe pathological damage. These parasite vaccines include one directed against Dictyocaulus viviparus (e.g., Dictol, Glaxo), undoubtedly the most successful anti-parasite vaccine, and analogous therewith a vaccine against Dictyocaulus filaria, the lung worm in sheep (Sharma et al. 1988). These vaccines are based on live but irradiated third-stage larvae (Peacock and Pointer 1980). Another attenuated vaccine is directed against the hookworm Ancylostoma caninum in dogs. However, this vaccine has been marketed only for a short time in the USA; marketing was discontinued because the American veterinary profession did not accept this live vaccine (Urquhart 1980). An attenuated vaccine against Babesia bovis has been in use for nearly a century in Australia (Purnell 1980) and a dead vaccine based on metabolic products named “Pirodog” is used to vaccinate dogs against B. canis (Moreau 1986).
Vaccination trials in sheep with a recombinant vaccine against the tape worm Taenia ovis (Johnson et al. 1989) and the concealed antigen H11 from Haemonchus contortus (Newton 1995, review) have been performed successfully. A trial with the SPf66 malaria vaccine in Africa has recently been completed. The efficiency against clinical malaria in areas of high transmission was 31% and the product appeared to be safe. However, because it is not fully understood how SPf66 mediates protection, the development of improved vaccines is hampered (Tanner et al. 1995, review).
Problems of developing anti-parasite vaccines are abundant. Parasites have complex life cycles and each stage expresses different sets of antigens. Moreover, the different stages are often associated with different sites in the body. For most parasites little is known about the immune mechanisms involved in natural immunity and about the stage of the parasite inducing this immunity.
Most often, no reproducible animal model is available to study these mechanisms, thereby blocking a new approach in vaccine development. As mentioned above, most available vaccines are based on attenuated live parasites. These vaccines can sometimes be successful because the “vaccine parasites” follow the correct route of infection and deliver a wide array of stage-specific antigens. However, such vaccines must challenge the acceptance of the public (e.g., Ancylostoma caninum vaccine), especially when they are for human use (e.g., Schistosoma mansoni vaccine, Taylor et al. 1986). Moreover, live vaccines, in general, have a short shelf-life and are relatively expensive. From this perspective there is an obvious need for vaccines that are based on (recombinant) proteins derived from the parasite. However, the identification of such protective proteins meets a great number of difficulties, as shown below as an example for Fasciola hepatica.
The trematode parasite Fasciola hepatica mainly infects cattle and sheep. Sometimes also humans get infected. The parasite causes considerable economic losses in, for example, western Europe, Australia and South America. The metacercariae of Fasciola hepatica enter its host by the oral route, penetrate the gut wall within four to seven hours (Dawes 1963; Burden et al. 1981; Burden et al. 1983; Kawano et al. 1992) and migrate through the peritoneal cavity towards the target organ, the liver. Oral infection of cattle results in almost complete protection against a challenge, whereas sheep often die from an infection and do not acquire natural immunity. Both the natural host (cattle) and the animal model (rat) acquire natural immunity after infection (Doy and Hughes 1984; Hayes, Bailer and Mitrovic 1973). Therefore, rats are often used to study resistance in cattle. In the rat a large part of natural immunity is expressed in the gut mucosa, the porte d'entree of the parasite. In immune rats, about 80% of the challenge newly excysted juvenile stages (NEJs) is eliminated in the route from the gut lumen to the peritoneal cavity (Hayes and Mitrovic 1977; Rajasekariah and Howell 1977; Doy, Hughes and Harness 1978/1981; Doy and Hughes 1982; Burden et al. 1981/1983). Based on natural immunity, a vaccine based on irradiated Fasciola gigantica metacercariae was developed for cattle (Bitakaramire 1973). In the seventies and eighties many vaccination experiments have been performed with antigen extracts of adult and juvenile flukes (Haroun and Hillyer 1980, review). However, these studies lead to conflicting or disputable results. For example, subcutaneous or intramuscular injection of rats with adult or juvenile fluke extracts did not result in protection (Oldham and Hughes 1982; Burden et al. 1982; Oldham 1983). Adult fluke extracts given intraperitoneally in Freund complete adjuvant (FCA) or incomplete Freund adjuvant (IFA) resulted in about 50% protection (Oldham and Hughes 1982; Oldham 1983). Using very high antigen doses of Bordetella pertussis as additional adjuvant this protection reached 80% to 86% (Oldham and Hughes 1982; Oldham 1983). Extracts of four-week-old juveniles given intraperitoneally in AlOH3 did not induce protection in the studies of Pfister et al. (1984/85), whereas 16-day old juvenile extracts provided 86% protection in mice, without the use of adjuvant (Lang and Hall 1977). Subcutaneous sensitization of cattle with sonicated 16-day-old juveniles resulted in more than 90% protection (Hall and Lang 1978). Intramuscular injection of calves with an isolated fraction from adult Fasciola hepatica (FhSmIII), with an immunogenic 12 kD protein as major component, resulted in 55% protection (Hillyer et al. 1987).
Since 1990, several Fasciola hepatica vaccine candidate antigens have been isolated and/or produced. Most of these antigens are derived from adult flukes and share homology with Schistosoma mansoni antigens. Glutathion S-transferases (GST) are enzymes amongst others active in the cellular detoxification system. Immunization of sheep (n=9) with GST purified from adult Fasciola hepatica, injected s.c. in FCA, with a boost immunization 4 weeks later in IFA, resulted in 57% protection (Sexton et al. 1990). Immunization of rats with GST provided no protection (Howell et al. 1988). Vaccination trials in cattle performed by Ciba Animal Health Research (Switzerland) and The Victorian Institute of Animal Science (Australia), resulted in 49% to 69% protection (Morrison et al. 1996).
Intradermal/subcutaneous immunization with recombinant S. mansoni fatty acid-binding protein Sm14 in FCA, provided complete protection against Fasciola hepatica challenge in mice (Tendler et al. 1996). PCT International Patent Publication WO 94/09142 suggests the use of proteases having cathepsin L type activity, derived of Fasciola hepatica, in the formulation of vaccines for combating helminth parasites; immunization of rabbits with the purified mature enzyme resulted in rabbit antibodies capable of decreasing the activity of the enzyme in vitro.
However, levels of protection obtained with F. hepatica cathepsin L or hemoglobin in cattle were only 53.7% or 43.5%, respectively (Dalton et al. 1996). Cathepsin L belongs to a family of cysteine proteinases, secreted by all stages of the developing parasite. Cathepsin L from F. hepatica is most active at slightly acid or neutral pH (Dalton and Heffernan, 1989). The functions of this proteinase include disruption of host immune function by cleaving host immunoglobulin in a papain-like manner (Smith et al. 1993) and preventing antibody mediated attachment of immune effector cells to the parasite (Carmona et al. 1993). Moreover, cathepsin L is capable of degradation of extracellular matrix and basement membrane components (Berasain et al. 1997), and prepares mucosal surface to be penetrated by a parasite indicating that cathepsin L is involved in tissue invasion. Because of its crucial biological functions, cathepsin L proteases are considered important candidates for the development of an anti-parasite vaccine.
Cathepsin L is synthesized as a preproprotein with a 15-amino-acid (“aa”)-long peptide presequence, a 91-aa-long peptide prosequence or proregion and a 220-aa-long poly)peptide enzymatic part. Of cysteine proteinases the preregion is removed immediately after synthesis and the proprotein comprising the proregion and the part that (constitutes the mature enzyme) is transported to the Golgi. Conversion to the mature enzyme and thus conversion to an enzymatically active state, occurs in the lysosomes and could be due to cathepsin D or to autoactivation. In some cases precursors containing the proregion are secreted (North et al. 1990). Cathepsin L itself has a high affinity for a substrate with Arg at the P1 position and a hydrophobic residue (Phe) at the P2 position (Dowd et al. 1994). It also has autocatalytic activity and cleaves off its prosequence before it obtains its mature enzymatic activity. Cathepsin L2 also cleaves peptides containing Pro at the P2 position, and is therefore capable of cleaving fibrinogen and producing a fibrin clot.
Other potential candidates for an anti-fluke vaccine are hemoglobin, isolated from mature Fasciola hepatica (McGonigle and Dalton 1995) and cathepsin L secreted by adult Fasciola hepatica (Smith et al. 1993; Smith et al. 1994; Spithill 1995). Up to now, next to the irradiated Fasciola gigantica metacercariae (Bitakarami 1973) several antigens have been named as potential protein vaccines:
However, none of these potential candidates have emerged as an effective vaccine against Fasciola hepatica infection, and a large number of questions, such as: at what site in the host is immunity expressed?; against which stage of the parasite is immunity directed?; at which site in the host this immunity is induced?; which immune mechanisms are involved in protection?; which stage of Fasciola hepatica induces protective immunity?; and, last but not least, which antigens induce protection?, need to be answered before a successful vaccine can be developed. It is clear that answering these questions is greatly hampered by the lack of a suitable animal- or challenge model by which parasitic infections can be studied. And even when animal models are available progress can only be slow because of the fact that the parasitic infection in the host under study takes a considerable time to develop while its outcome depends on various factors that relate to the in time changing host-parasite relationship. For instance, although much focus has been directed to proteins, such as proteases, derived from newly excysted juvenile (NEJ) stages of Fasciola hepatica as candidate protective antigens (see, for instance, Tkalcevic et al. 1995), no clear cut identification of truly protective proteins has been foreseen. To the contrary, early developmental stages of Fasciola hepatica display rapid changes in protein and antigen expression during the early stages of infection, and such changes may even assist the parasite to evade the host immune response (Tkalcevic et al., Parasite Immunology 18:139-147, 1996). It has, for instance, been demonstrated that in parasites, proteases are involved in the invasion of host tissues, the evasion of immune attack mechanisms and help provide nutrients for parasite survival.
Thus, both the abundance of possible different proteins or antigens that need to be studied and the lack of suitable challenge models hamper the possible progress that is needed in the development of parasite vaccines. Crucial for progress in parasite vaccines are new methods to measure protective immunity in order to be able to study a variety of candidate protective antigens and to identify new candidate protective antigens. Thus, new animal models are needed that will increase the number of candidate proteins or substances that can be tested in time.
The present invention provides a very rapid method to study, investigate and evaluate natural immunity against a parasite under study. The invention provides an ex vivo animal or challenge model method to rapidly study protective immunity directed against parasites and vaccines directed against parasitic infections. Ex vivo models are in general designed to study organs or organ systems of animals, under anesthesia, out of the context provided by the natural body, but still within the context of proper blood supply or the like. These models have in general a short execution time and provide less prolonged suffering to the experimental animal than seen with in vivo models.
The invention provides an ex vivo gut model in the rat, or in other small experimental animals such as mice or chickens, or in other animal species. Challenge parasites are injected in one or more ex vivo segments of the intestines of the selected animal and parasites, such as NEJs, that then penetrate the intestinal wall are recovered in a container that holds the particular gut segment. In particular, segments of the small intestine, such as duodenum, jejunum or ileum can be used, however, segments of other parts of the intestine, such as stomach, colon, cecum or rectum can also be used depending on the selected route of infection of the parasite under study. This model provided by the invention is capable of measuring expression of resistance in the entire intestine by comparing segments that have been subjected to different loads of parasites or to different stages of parasites. In addition, all the trajects in the migration route of the parasite such as can be found in gut mucosa, peritoneal cavity and liver and others, which are essential for the induction of mucosal resistance can be investigated. Such studies that are enabled by the invention provide knowledge about the most efficient vaccination route and about possibilities for an oral vaccine. Another advantage of the ex vivo challenge model using ligated gut segments is that migration of the pathogen from the gut lumen to the peritoneal cavity is limited to a small area, allowing the localization and characterization of the protective immune response against the parasite in the gut mucosa. Moreover, the level of resistance induced by a previous infection or vaccination can be correlated with immune mechanisms against the parasite (in the experimental part demonstrated with Fasciola hepatica) because the challenge infection does not settle and does not induce additional immune responses that interfere with those that need to be studied. Especially the immunity and protective mechanisms directed against those pathogens that penetrate mucosal or skin surfaces to infect the host, such as Fasciola hepatica, Paragonimus westermani, Schistosoma mansoni, Toxocara canis, Dictyocaulus viviparus, Trichinella spiralis, Nematodiris spp, Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, Ascaris suum, Anisakis and other pathogens varying from prions to protozoa, whether they may fully or partly penetrate the surfaces, can be measured specifically well by the model provided by the invention. Parasites or other pathogens that fully penetrate the mucosal surfaces of the gut segments employed in the model can be recovered as shown above, those that only partly penetrate the mucosal surfaces can be recovered from the blood or lymph vessels servicing the particular segment.
Measuring the immunity and protective mechanisms directed against parasites offers the possibility to modulate the effector phase of the immune response in the host which will result in the development of efficient vaccination strategies. In other words, the invention measures the capacity of proteins to be protective antigens for use as vaccine against infections. Because protection data are obtained the same day the ex vivo model provided by the invention enables quick testing of different stages of many candidate vaccine antigens (protective proteins or fragments derived thereof) for their capacity to induce resistance and immunity.
One such candidate vaccine antigen provided by the invention is a protective protein, or antigenic fragment derived thereof, the protein at least comprising an amino acid sequence derived of a proregion of an enzyme. Several proteases are involved when a parasite penetrates a mucosal or skin surface. Examples are serine protease, dipeptidyl peptidase-like protease, cysteine protease, proteases with cathepsin-like activity, but also enzymes like glutathion S-transferase and many others are involved during the phase when the parasite is penetrating a mucosal or skin surface. Surprisingly, the invention provides protective protein (fragments) derived of a proprotein of such an enzyme or protease which elicits a better immune response than when a mature enzyme is used. Optionally, it is possible to combine the immune response directed against the proprotein with the immune response directed against the mature enzyme.
The proregion of F hepatica cathepsin L showed 41.8%, 38.5%, 30.8% and 20.2% homology with the cathepsin L proregion of S. mansoni (1), S. Japonicum, H. sapiens and S. mansoni (2), respectively.
A) Peptide MCF04, derived from cathepsin L (
B) Peptide MCF04 was coated onto ELISA plates and tested with sera from sheep, infected with Fasciola hepatica (n=5), Echinococcus granulosus (n=9), Nematodirus battus (n=3) Haemonchus contortus (n=12), Toxoplasma gondii (n=12), Eimeria spp. (n=12), Ostertagia circumcincta (n=8), Cooperia oncophora (n=12), Taenia ovis (n=8), and with parasite-free sheep (n=12).
In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the invention provides protective protein(fragments) derived of a proregion of such an enzyme, preferably a protease. In yet another embodiment, the immune response directed against the proregion is combined with the immune response directed against the mature enzyme.
One such candidate vaccine antigen provided by the invention is a protective protein, or antigenic fragments thereof, derived from NEJs of Fasciola hepatica. The protective status of rats vaccinated with candidate vaccine antigens, such as can be prepared from NEJ proteins, can be measured via vaccination studies using the ex vivo model provided by the invention, for example, by measuring the protective status of rats previously immunized with a selected protein. Various proteins derived from NEJs of Fasciola hepatica and isolated, for instance via SDS-PAGE gel electrophoresis and electroblotting, or via exclusion by molecular size, or filtration, and further identified by apparent molecular weight and by N-terminal sequencing can be studied. The invention, as an example, provides among others a protective protein or fragments thereof corresponding to an immunodominant protein found with NEJs with an apparent molecular weight of 30 to 32 kD and an N-terminal amino acid sequence of XXDVSWPFWDRMYNY (SEQ. ID NO:1) (amino acids are listed in the one-letter code, x=unknown amino acid). Also provided by the invention are nucleotide sequences encoding protective proteins or (poly) peptides provided by the invention.
A preferred embodiment of the invention is a protective protein, or fragments thereof, which protein is at least comprising an amino acid sequence derived of a proregion or prosequence of a protease, for example, a protease which is (at least partly) encoded by a nucleic acid having a nucleotide sequence corresponding to a nucleotide sequence as shown in
Methods to derive such sequences from (partly) isolated or identified (parasite)proteins are known in the art, for example, it is possible to identify immunogenic determinants or fragments by studying the antigenicity index by, for example, computer analysis. Furthermore, nucleotide sequences encoding the enzymes or proteases are known in the art. Sequences encoding cathepsin-like proteases are, for example, shown by Wijffels et al. (1994). Often, a part of a sequence encoding a mature enzyme is known, which enables an average skilled artisan to identify corresponding nucleic acid sequences encoding corresponding pre- and/or proregions. Such nucleic acid and/or protein sequences can be obtained from both adult or juvenile stages of an organism. A preferred embodiment of the invention provides a protective protein, or fragments thereof, corresponding to a proregion derived of a protease mainly found in a juvenile stage of a parasite, preferably the parasite being a Fasciola species. By using isolated nucleotide sequences in amplification or screening methods, varying or different parasitic sequences that encode functionally equivalent proteins or (poly) peptides can be identified in and isolated from related parasites. All such nucleotide sequences or fragments thereof can be molecularly cloned by methods known in the art in suitable expression systems to generate recombinant proteins that can be used in anti-parasite vaccines or for diagnostic purposes, as described above.
An example of an immunogenic determinant or fragment or fragments as provided by the invention is a fragment derived of a proregion of a protease. A typical example is a peptide corresponding or related with a peptide, such as MCF03 or MCF06, or a peptide found at an overlapping position, in a proregion of a protease, examples can also be found in
Furthermore, a diagnostic test comprising the protective protein or an antibody directed against the protein or a nucleotide encoding the protein are also part of the invention. Furthermore, a diagnostic test which measures proteins excluding the protein, or antibodies against proteins, excluding antibody directed against the protein, and wherein the diagnostic test is specifically designed to be used as an accompanying test to the use of a vaccine which specifically includes the protein is also part of the invention. With such an accompanying test infected animals can be differentiated from vaccinated animals. An example of such a diagnostic test is given in the experimental part in this description. Herein it is shown that antibodies directed against an protective epitope derived from a proregion can be differentiated from antibodies directed against the mature part of the enzyme, allowing the differentiation of infected animals from vaccinated animals. It is of course preferred that the animals are vaccinated with a vaccine comprising a protein (fragment) derived of a proregion of an enzyme, such as a protease, as provided by the invention. Such differentiation is not possible when animals are vaccinated with a (mature) protease with enzymatic activity.
In a preferred embodiment of the invention, a vaccine comprises mainly a protein (fragment) derived of a proregion of a protease, where as a diagnostic test comprises mainly a protein (fragment) derived of a mature enzyme part of the protease, whereby combining such a vaccine with such a test allows controlled eradication of a parasite infection.
In addition, the invention provides a diagnostic test measuring an antibody directed against an immunodominant, species specific, epitope on a cathepsin-like protease, preferably wherein, the species is Fasciola hepatica. The test, comprising, for example, a peptide corresponding to peptide MCF04, or a peptide related thereto, allows, for example, biological differentiation of animals infected with Fasciola hepatica from animals injected with other parasites, such as D. viviparus, which otherwise have a strong immunoreactivity with Cathepsin-L protease as a whole.
As described herein above, and further described in the experimental part of this description, without limiting the invention thereto, the invention among others provides a protective protein, or antigenic fragment derived thereof, and related nucleic acid sequences, that are at least comprising and/or encoding an amino acid sequence derived of or proregion of an enzyme, such as a protease, for example, for inclusion in a vaccine, for example, in parasitic infections. The invention also provides use of such a vaccine in animals, preferably mammals. Vaccine candidates are, for example, vaccines for protection against parasitic infection in ruminants, such as those susceptible to Fasciola infections, or in humans, such as those susceptible to Schistosoma infections.
Materials and Methods
Rats
Specific pathogen free female Wistar rats (Charles River, Sulzfeld) were selected for all experiments. Rats were provided with food and water ad libitum. Rats were food deprived during 16 hours before primary and challenge infection. Rats were six weeks of age at the time of primary infection or first vaccination. Rats were ten weeks of age at the time of the challenge infection, with the exception of rats used to study the duration of resistance. These rats were 19 weeks old at the time of challenge infection.
Fasciola hepatica
Fasciola hepatica metacercariae were produced within the ID-DLO institute. In vitro excystment of metacercariae was performed by the method of Smith and Clegg (1981). NEJs were counted under a microscope (magnification 160×) directly after excystment. NEJs were kept in 300 μl of RPMI-1640 culture medium (ICN-Biomedicals BV, Zoetermeer, Holland) at 37° C. until use (less than one hour after excystment).
Primary Infection
Twenty-five Fasciola hepatica metacercariae were orally administered to rats in 1 ml of tap water. After delivery of the pathogen syringe and cannula were flushed to check delivery of the metacercariae. Metacercariae that stayed behind were administered in another ml of tap water.
Expression of Resistance
Total resistance: quantification of the number of challenge parasites reaching the target organ, the liver.
To measure the total level of protection against Fasciola hepatica rats were orally challenged with exactly 200 metacercariae. After delivery of the pathogen syringe and cannula were flushed to check delivery of the metacercariae. Metacercariae that stayed behind were administered in another ml of tap water. Three weeks after challenge, infection rats were killed, livers removed and placed in separate petri-dishes containing 50 ml of RPMI-1640 culture medium. Livers were incubated at 37° C. Every hour (up to six hours), livers were cut into smaller pieces and placed in new petri-dishes. NEJs recovered were counted.
Resistance at Gut Level: Quantification of the Number of NEJs Penetrating the Gut Wall, Using an Ex Vivo Infection Model
Rats were anaesthetized by ether inhalation and immediately thereafter injected with 50 mg/kg of nembutal (Compagnie Rousselot, Paris, France) intraperitoneally and 0.05 mg/kg of atropin (AUV, Cuyk, Holland) subcutaneously. During the experimental procedure, additional nembutal (16 mg/kg) was injected subcutaneously three hours after ether inhalation. Forty-five minutes after anesthetization, an incision (1.5 cm) was made below the diaphragm and a loop of the small intestine of about 7 cm in length was taken out of the body cavity. A segment or segments of about 5 cm was delimited with two linen threads (B. Braun, Melsungen AG), at standard locations from the stomach. To study resistance at different locations in the intestine, segments of the duodenum (1 to 5 cm from the stomach; n=6), the mid jejunum (40 to 60 cm from the stomach; n=6) and the ileum (70 to 90 cm from the stomach; n=6) were prepared. In the segment or segments NEJs were injected according to the method of Burden et al. (1983). After injection, needle and syringe were flushed three times with 1 ml of medium in a petri dish. NEJs that remained behind in syringe and/or needle during inoculation were quantified under a microscope (rest fraction), and the infection dose was calculated (counted dose minus rest fraction).
During the experiment, the gut loop or loops including the segment or segments was or were kept outside the body cavity and the incision was closed with one or two surgical staples. Per experiment, eight rats were laid onto perspex plates, the gut loops were led through holes in the plates and hung freely in 50 ml beakers well below the surface of RPMI-1640 medium. The beakers with 50 ml medium were changed every hour and NEJs that had migrated through the gut wall into the beaker were quantified by light microscopy (peritoneal fraction; magnification 100×). During the experiment, the whole system was kept at body temperature: 1) by placing the beakers in a water bath of 37° C., 2) by warming the rats pumping warm water from a central heater below the perspex plates on which the rats were laying and 3) by warming the rats using an infrared lamp, when necessary as indicated by measurement of the body temperature. The rats were killed after six hours, gut segments removed and segment size and distance to the stomach determined. The lumina of the segments were flushed with medium and NEJs remaining in the gut lumen were quantified by light microscopy (luminal fraction). The segments were finally fixed according to the “Swiss roll” method (Bexter, 1982) in methylbutane (−150° C.) and stored at −70° C. for immunohistochemistry.
Reproducibility of the Ex Vivo Gut Model
To determine the number of NEJs left in the gut wall (gut fraction) after the experiment, each gut segment was cut into 10 μm frozen sections. Every fifth section was collected to score any NEJ (size NEJ±100 μm), air-dried and fixed for ten minutes in acetone (Merck). Fixation and all subsequent washings and incubations were performed at room temperature. After fixation peroxidase activity in the gut wall was blocked: sections were incubated for 20 minutes in 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.5, containing 2% NaN3 and 0.2% H2O2. Sections were then washed for five minutes in three changes of Tris-buffered saline pH 7.4 (TBS), stained for five minutes in 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.5, containing 1 mg/ml 3,3′-diaminobenzidine (Sigma, St. Louis, USA) and 0.015% H2O2, washed for five minutes in three changes of phosphate-buffered saline pH 7.6 (PBS) and incubated for one hour in PBS containing 2% normal rat serum (NRS) and 4% bovine immune serum. This serum was raised in a five-month-old calf by two oral infections with 4500 and 2250 Fasciola hepatica metacercariae, with an interval of 11 weeks. Antiserum was obtained eight weeks after the second infection. After three washings with PBS, sections were incubated for one hour with peroxidase-conjugated rabbit anti-cow immunoglobulin (Dakopatts, Glostrup, Denmark), diluted 1:500 in 2% NRS in PBS. Subsequent washing was performed and peroxidase activity was visualized by an eight-minute incubation in a freshly made, filtered solution of 0.05 M NaAc pH 4.4, containing 0.2 mg/ml 3-amino-9-ethylcarbazole (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo., USA) and 0.015% H2O2. After staining, the sections were washed in running tap water and mounted in aquamount (BDH Laboratory supplies, Poole, England). Microscopically counting of NEJs was performed and successive sections were compared to prevent scoring NEJs twice.
Induction of Resistance
Gut Level
1) Five rats were orally infected with 25 metacercariae and treated four hours later with the flukicide triclabendazole (100 mg/kg, Fasinex, CIBA-GEIGY, Basel, Switzerland). Flukicide treatment was repeated the following three days. After five weeks expression of resistance at gut level was measured, using the ex vivo gut model, and “breakthrough” infections in the liver were investigated at autopsy. To confirm that Fasinex treatment did not influence migration of the challenge parasites through the gut wall, non-infected, fasinex-treated rats were used as challenge controls.
2) Four rats were primed with 18 to 25 NEJs directly in the jejunum. During four hours, NEJs penetrating the gut wall were captured using the ex vivo gut model. During primary infection, rats were anesthetized by an intraperitoneal injection with ketamine (40 to 60 mg/kg; Alfasan, Woerden, NL), and a subcutaneous injection with xylazine (3 to 8 mg/kg; Rompun, Bayer, Germany) and atropine (0.05 mg/kg). One day before and one day after infection, rats were treated with the antibiotic duoprim (0.5 ml/kg, subcutaneously; Pitman-Moor, Houten, NL). The sedative fiadyne (1 mg/kg, intramuscularly; Schering-Plough, Amstelveen, NL) was given the first three days after infection. After four weeks expression of resistance at gut level was measured and “breakthrough” infections in the livers were investigated at autopsy.
Peritoneal Cavity/Liver
NEJs of the primary infection were injected in the peritoneal cavity (n=3, 13 to 17 NEJs) or between the liver lobes (n=8, 7 to 25 NEJs). For liver infection, a small incision (1 cm) was made below the diaphragm. NEJs in 100 μl of RPMI-1640 were injected between the liver lobes. During the operative procedure rats were anaesthetized as described above. For intraperitoneal infection rats were anesthetized by ether inhalation and immediately thereafter intraperitoneally injected with the NEJs.
Preparation of Fasciola Hepatica Antigen Extracts
After in vitro excystment, NEJs were washed with PBS. Three hundred mg of NEJs in 3 ml of PBS were sonificated (Sonicor UPP-400, Sonicor Instrument Corporation-copaque, NV) five times for 30 seconds at 20 kHz on ice. The suspension was extracted over night at 4° C. and thereafter sonificated again. The extract was centrifugated for 20 minutes at 10,000 g and the supernatant stored in aliquots of 1 ml at −70° C. Concentration of protein in the extract was 3 mg/ml, as determined by a Bradford assay.
Adult Fasciola hepatica were obtained from the livers of cattle and thoroughly washed with HMEM-medium and subsequently with PBS at 4° C. Flukes were ground using a Sorvall omnimixer (model 17106) ten times for 30 seconds on ice. The subsequent sonification and extraction procedures were performed as described above.
YM-30 Filtration NEJ-Antigen
Freshly prepared NEJ extract (10 ml of a 3 mg/ml extract) was diluted in PBS to a volume of 30 ml and filtrated through a YM-30 membrane (Amicon, 62 mm) at 1 Bar, at 16° C. (Amicon model 8200). The 5 ml rest fraction was replenished with 5 ml of PBS and filtrated again to a 5 ml rest fraction. This procedure was repeated two times. Finally, the 40 ml filtrate (25 μg/ml) was stored at −70° C. in aliquots of 1 ml. Other filtrates, containing more protein, i.e., 183 μg/ml were prepared and stored likewise.
Vaccination Regimes
Rats were primed with 100 μg of NEJ or adult stage Fasciola hepatica antigen intraperitoneally. After three weeks, an intraperitoneal boost immunization with 500 μg of antigen was given. One week after the boost, immunization resistance against a challenge infection was determined. To measure the total level of protection rats were orally challenged with 200 metacercariae and to measure the level of protection expressed at gut level rats were intrajejunally challenged with NEJs (for recovery procedures see “expression of resistance”).
Doses of the YM-30 filtrate used were 20 μg and 65 μg for primary and boost immunization, respectively.
SDS-PAGE and Western Blotting
Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electroforesis (SDS-PAGE) was performed using the Tris-Tricine buffer system (Schagger and von Jagow, 1987) with 10% to 20% (w/v) polyacrylamide gradient gels or 15% slab gels (8 by 10 cm). 12.5 μg of protein was applied per gel in the presence of β-mercaptoethanol. To determine the molecular weights of the NEJ proteins a prestained MW marker from BRL (Bethesda Research Laboratories, Breda, The Netherlands) was added to the gel (MW range: 14.3-200 kD). After electrophoresis at 20 mA for 3.5 hours, separated proteins were electrophoretically transferred (16 hours, 20 mA, RT) onto a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF)-type membrane (Applied Biosystems, Inc) using a buffer system, containing 10 mM 3-cyclohexylamino-1-propane-sulfonic acid (CAPS) pH 11 (Aldrich) in 10% methanol.
N-Terminal Sequencing
Blotted proteins were visualized by staining with 0.1% Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 (Sigma). The regions staining with CBB or the protein band staining in immunoblotting with the sera were excised from the PVDF-membrane and 2 cm membrane was subjected to Edman degradation sequencing using an Applied Biosystems Protein Sequencing system (model 476A). Analysis was performed at “The Centre for Biomembrane and Lipid Enzymology, Department of Biochemistry, University of Utrecht.”
Immunostaining
Four immunostaining 4 mm PVDF-strips were saturated for one hour with 10% normal rabbit serum (NRS) in PBS-0.5 M NaCl-0.05% TWEEN®-80, pH 7.2 (PBS-NT). Subsequently strips were incubated for 16 hours with 40 μl rat serum or 40 μl calve serum in 2 ml of PBS-NT containing 2% NRS. The calf sera were obtained from five-month-old calves, 12 weeks after oral infection with 4500 Fasciola hepatica metacercariae. After a three-hour incubation with 20 μg of mAb anti-rat IgG1 (culture supernatant, TNO Leiden, The Netherlands) and 16 μg of mAb anti-bovine IgG1 (van Zaane et al.) in 2 ml PBS-NT containing 2% NRS, HRPO-conjugated rabbit anti-mouse Ig (Dakopatts), 1/500 diluted in PBS-NT containing 2% normal rat serum was added for two hours. Chloronaphtol (Sigma; 0.5 mg/ml 4-Chloro-1-naphtol and 0.015% H2O2 in Tris-buffered saline pH 7.4) was used as substrate. One hour after application of the substrate staining was stopped by washing the strips with aqua dest.
All incubations were performed at room temperature and between all incubation steps strips were washed three times during ten minutes with PBS-NT.
Peptide Synthesis
Reagents
N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP), N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), N-hydroxybenzotria-zole (HOBt), 2-(1H-benzotriazol-1-yl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethyluronium hexafluorophosphate (HBTU) and piperidine were peptide synthesis grade and obtained from Perkin Elmer/ABI (Warrington, UK). Acetonitrile was gradient grade, diisopropylethylamine (DIEA), trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), thioanisole (TA), phenol, and ethanedithiol (EDT) were synthesis grade and were obtained from Merck (Darnstadt, Germany). Before use, diethyl ether was purified over a column of activated basic aluminum oxide and DIEA was distilled twice over ninhydrin and potassium hydroxide. Fmoc-amino acid derivatives and Rink resin (4-(2′,4′-dimethoxyphenyl-Fmoc-amino methyl)phenoxy resin) were obtained from Saxon Biochemicals (Hannover, Germany).
Peptide Synthesis
Five synthetic peptides were produced of about 20 amino acids in length, according to the sequence of cathepsin L from Wijffels et al. (1994). The peptides were derived from possible immunogenic determinants on the molecule, based on the antigenicity index as described by Jameson and Wolf. Peptides MCF03 and MCF06 were derived from the prosequence of cathepsin L, peptides MCF05, MCF04 and MCL13 from the enzymatic part of the molecule. Peptide MCF03 included aa 15 to 33 (Gly-Ser-Asn-Asp-Asp-Leu-Trp-His-Gln-Trp-Lys-Arg-Met-Tyr-Asn-Lys-Glu-Tyr-Asn) (SEQ ID NO:2), peptide MCF06 aa 25 to 42 (Lys-Arg-Met-Tyr-Asn-Lys-Glu-Tyr-Asn-Gly-Ala-Asp-Asp-Gln-His-Arg-Arg-Asn) (SEQ ID NO:3), peptide MCF05 aa 103 to 122 (Ala-Asn-Asn-Arg-Ala-Val-Pro-Asp-Lys-Ile-Asp-Trp-Arg-Glu-Ser-Gly-Tyr-Val-Thr-Glu) (SEQ ID NO:4), peptide MCF04 aa 110 to 129 (Asp-Lys-Ile-Asp-Trp-Arg-Glu-Ser-Gly-Tyr-Val-Thr-Glu-Val-Lys-Asp-Gln-Gly-Asn-Cys) (SEQ ID NO:5) and peptide MCL13 aa 296 to 311 (Gly-Glu-Arg-Gly-Tyr-Ile-Arg-Met-Ala-Arg-Asn-Arg-Gly-Asn-Met-Cys) (SEQ ID NO:6). The molecular masses of the peptides were in accordance with the expected values.
We used a Hamilton Microlab 2200 (Reno, Nev., USA) to synthesize up to 40 peptides simultaneously at 30 mmol scale. The Hamilton Microlab 2200 was programmed to deliver washing solvents and reagents to two racks with 20 individual 4 ml columns with filter, containing resin for peptide synthesis. The columns were drained automatically after each step by vacuum. The coupling cycle was based on Fmoc/HBTU chemistry (Fields et al. 1991) using double coupling steps of 40 minutes. Peptides MCF03, MCF06 and MCF05 were synthesized with an additional cysteine at the N-terminus. After coupling of the last amino acid, the Fmoc group was removed using 30% (v/v) piperidine/NMP for three and for 15 minutes. The peptides were washed with NMP (five times), acetylated using NMP/acetic anhydride/DIEA (10/1/0.1; v/v/v) for 30 minutes, washed successively with NMP and ethanol, and then dried. Peptides were deprotected and cleaved in two hours using 1.5 ml of a mixture of TFA/phenol/TA/water/EDT (10/0.75/0.5/0.5/0.25; v/w/v/v/v/) and then precipitated twice by adding hexane/diethylether (1/1; v/v). The precipitate was dried and lyophilized from water/acetonitrile (1/1; v/v).
HPLC and Mass-Spectrometry
For analytical HPLC we used two Waters pumps model 510, a Waters gradient controller model 680, a Waters WISP 712 autoinjector, and a Waters 991 photodiode array detector. A micromass Quattro II sq mass spectrometer, coupled with the HPLC system, was used to determine the molecular masses of the individual peaks by electrospray ionization. The products were analyzed in a linear gradient from 10% (v/v) acetonitrile/water with 0.1% (v/v) TFA to 70% (v/v) acetonitrile/water with 0.1% (v/v) TFA in 30 min on a Waters Delta Pak C18-100A (3.9×150 mm, 5 mm) column at 1 ml/minute.
Conjugation of Peptides to Keyhole Limpet Haemocyanin (KLH)
Peptides were conjugated to KLH carrier protein, using m-maleimidobenzoyl-N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (MBS). To 1 mg of KLH (Calbiochem, 10 mg/ml in 0.1 M phosphate buffered saline pH 7) 100 ml of MBS (Pierce, 40 mg/ml in dimethylformamide (Merck)) and 300 ml of acetonitrile were added in drops and the mixture was incubated for one hour on ice. Then 1.1 ml of PBS was added and the activated carrier was separated from excess MBS using a PD10 column (Pharmacia). One mg of peptide was added to 2.3 mg of activated KLH and incubated for one hour at room temperature. Then peptide and conjugate were separated by dialysis against PBS and the conjugate stored at −20° C.
Vaccination of Rats with Synthetic Peptides Derived from Cathepsin L
Rats (four per group) were vaccinated in the hind thigh muscles with 100 mg of peptide (i) in PBS, (ii) mixed with specol (ID-DLO, Lelystad), according to the manufacturer's instructions, (iii) coupled to KLH and mixed with specol. After three weeks, an intraperitoneal boost immunization was given with 100 mg of the corresponding peptide, without the use of specol. One week after the boost immunization rats were challenged orally and the parasite load in the liver was measured three weeks later.
PCR, Subcloning and Sequencing
mRNA was isolated from 450 μl of packed NEJs (±45.000 NEJs) and two adult F. hepatica, respectively, using a QuickPrep mRNA Purification Kit (Pharmacia Biotech).
cDNA was produced using a First-Strand cDNA Synthesis Kit (Pharmacia Biotech). The PCR amplification reactions were performed in 25 μl reaction volumes of PCR buffer II (perkin Elmer) containing 100 ng of cDNA, 2.5 mM MgCl2, 200 μM-dTNPs, 1.08-1.46 μM of F. hepatica specific primers or 1 μM oligo (dT), and 0.5 unit of Taq DNA polymerase gold (Perkin Elmer). The sequences of the oligonucleotide primer sets, used to amplify the specific cathepsin L sequences were the following:
hepatica
hepatica
The amplification reactions were performed in a preheated Perkins Elmer Cetus DNA Termal Cycler (80° C.), ten minutes at 92° C. followed by 30 cycles of 30 seconds at 94° C., 30 seconds at 62° C. and two minutes at 72° C.
Amplified fragments were inserted by TA cloning into the LacZ gene of a pCR™ II vector, according to the manufacturer's instructions (TA Cloning Kit, Invitrogen). After transformation of TA Cloning One Shot competent cells, clones harboring inserts were distinguished by their white color. To verify size of the inserts, plasmid DNA was isolated using the Wizard Plus SV Minipreps DNA Purification System (Promega) and digested by BamHI and EcoRV (Pharmacia LKB Biochemicals), according to the manufacturer's instructions.
Sequencing of the cloned material was done using the chain termination reaction described by Sanger et al. (1977). Of each product, at least two positive clones were sequenced, using both the M13 Reverse and Forward primers. Using these primers, we were not able to sequence the whole procathepsin L molecule at one go. Additional primers (5′-3′) were designed, based on the nucleotide sequences obtained, to sequence the missing parts:
Of these primers, the use for either forward (fw) or reversed (rv) sequencing is indicated, as is their position with respect to the cathepsin L sequence from Wijffels et al. (1994).
Cathepsin L Peptide Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) for the Diagnosis of F. hepatica Infection in Cattle and Sheep
Experimental Sera
To obtain mono-specific anti-Fasciola sera, 24 Holstein Frisian calves of five to eight months of age, reared free of parasites, were infected with 100 to 3000 F. hepatica metacercariae. Serum samples were taken at weekly intervals. Calves were monitored for infection by weekly counting of the number of eggs in the feces. At slaughter, flukes were detected in the bile duct of all calves. In addition, four- to eight-month-old calves were mono-infected with D. viviparus (Dv; n=4), Ostertagia ostertagi (n=1), Nematodirus helvetianus (n=1), Cooperia oncophora (n=1) or Ascaris suum (n=1). Serum samples were taken when all the infected cattle shed parasite eggs or D. viviparus larvae. Detailed information on these sera is provided elsewhere (de Leeuw et al. 1993).
Five ewes of the Texel Sheep Breed, between three and twelve months of age, reared free of parasites, were infected with 20 F. hepatica metacercariae. Serum samples were taken at weekly intervals. Sheep were monitored for infection by weekly counting of the number of eggs in the feces. At slaughter, flukes were detected in the bile duct of all sheep. Monospecific sera against Haemonchus contortus (n=12) originated from sheep infected repeatedly (five to 50 times) with doses of 5,000 to 20,000 larvae. Antisera against Ostertagia circumcincta (n=8) originated from sheep infected once with 30,000 larvae. Monospecific sera against Taenia ovis (n=8) originated from sheep that had grazed on a pasture contaminated with T. ovis eggs. Cysticerci were found in all sheep at slaughter. Monospecific sera against Cooperia oncophora (n=12) originated from sheep infected once with 20,000 larvae. Monospecific sera against Nematodirus battus (n=3) originated from sheep infected five times with 5,000 larvae. Blood samples were taken ten to 15 weeks after infection, when all infected sheep shed parasite eggs or oocysts. Negative control sera were collected from parasite-free sheep (n=12).
Purification of Cathepsin L from Excretory/Secretory Products from F. hepatica
Adult flukes, collected from the bile ducts of experimentally infected cows, were washed three to four times, for one hour, with 0.01M PBS (pH 7.0). Twenty flukes were incubated per liter of HMEM medium containing streptomycin (100 μg/ml) and penicillin (100 IU/ml) at 37° C. for six days. The medium was refreshed each day and the supernatants collected from days 3 to 6 were pooled. This pool was centrifuged at 4° C. at 10,000 g for one hour and the supernatant stored at −70° C. until use. The average protein concentration was 10 μg/ml. The total protein yield was 1 mg per 10 g of flukes.
These excretion/secretion antigens were filtered through a YM-30 membrane (Amicon). The pH of the filtrate was adjusted to pH 9.5 with 0.5 M Tris-HCl pH 11, and subjected to ion exchange chromatography on a dyethylaminoethyl (DEAE)-Sephacel column (Pharmacia LKB, Uppsala, Sweden), equilibrated with 0.05 M sodiumcarbonate buffer, pH 9.5. After application of the filtrate, the DEAE-Sephacel column was washed with 0.05 M sodiumcarbonate buffer, pH 9.5, containing 200 mM NaCl. The column was subsequently eluted with the same buffer containing 500 mM NaCl. The eluate was subjected to SDS-PAGE, electroblotting and CBB staining and revealed one protein band. The 15 N-terminal amino acids, Ala-Val-Pro-Asp-Lys-Ile-Asp-Trp-Arg-Glu-Gln-Gly-Tyr-Val-Thr (SEQ ID NO:32), showed 95.4% homology to the cathepsin L sequence of Wijffels et al. (1994).
ELISA Procedure
ELISA plates (Greiner nr. 655001, Alphen aan de Rijn, The Netherlands) were coated with 100 μg of peptide MCF02, MCF03, MCF04, MCF05 and MCL13, respectively, in 0.01 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.5) and incubated overnight at 4° C. As a positive control, plates were coated with 100 μg of purified cathepsin L in 0.05 M carbonate buffer pH 9.5, and incubated overnight at 37° C. Between all incubation steps plates were washed three times with 0.05% TWEEN®-80 in tap water. An additional blocking step and drying off the plates was performed overnight by an “in-house method.” One hundred μg of calve or sheep serum, diluted 1/25 in 0.01 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.5), containing 0.05% TWEEN®-80 and 0.5 M NaCl, were added for one hour at 37° C. HRPO-conjugated monoclonal antibody against bovine IgG1 ( 1/30; ID-DLO, Lelystad, NL) and polyclonal anti-sheep IgG ( 1/15,000; Dakopatts) in 0.01 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.5) containing 0.05% TWEEN®-80, 0.5M NaCl and 1% normal horse serum, were added for one hour at 37° C. Tetramethylbenzidine (0.005% H2O2 and 1 mg/ml TMB in 0.1M Na-acetate/0.1 M citric acid buffer, pH 6.0) was used as substrate. Five minutes after application of the substrate, the reaction was stopped with 0.5 M H2SO4, and extinctions were measured at 450 nm in an Easyreader spectrophotometer (SLT, Vienne). The cut-off value between negative and positive was calculated as the average plus three times the standard deviation of the OD 450 nm of sera from parasite-free sheep or cows, respectively.
Results
Reproducibility of the Ex Vivo Gut Model
The accuracy of NEJ quantification in our infection and immunity model was tested in 18 rats. First, we determined the exact infection dose. After inoculation of an exact number of NEJs into a gut segment, NEJs remaining in needle and syringe were counted. This rest fraction, comprising on average 24% (range 6% to 56%) of the inoculation dose, was subtracted from the inoculation dose. Six hours after infection we determined the peritoneal fraction, the luminal fraction and the gut fraction (using an immunohistochemical procedure) and the sum of these fractions was compared with the infection dose (ranging from 4 to 78 NEJs/cm). The peritoneal fraction ranged from 4 to 33 NEJs/cm (43% to 80% of the infection dose, AVG 57%), the luminal fraction from 0 to 10 NEJs/cm (0% to 6%, AVG 1%), and the gut fraction from 0.2 to 19 NEJs/cm (6% to 44%, AVG 32%). The mean total sum of NEJs recovered was 87% (±3.6% SEM) of the infection dose, demonstrating the grade of reproducibility of the gut model.
Expression of Resistance
Infection with Fasciola hepatica results in resistance against a challenge at gut level.
Four weeks after oral infection with Fasciola hepatica rats were almost completely protected against a challenge infection. The number of challenge parasites that reached the liver of infected rats was reduced with 97% (±1.1% SEM; n=13), as compared to naive rats.
A large part of resistance against Fasciola hepatica was expressed in the gut mucosa, the porte d'entree of the parasite. Migration of NEJs through the intestinal wall of immune and naive rats was compared, using the ex vivo gut model. In immune rats resistance was expressed within two hours after challenge. After six hours, when migration was completed, 52% (±2.37% SEM; n=40) of the challenge NEJs had penetrated the jejunum of naive rats, whereas in immune rats only 12% (±1.77% SEM; n=40) had traversed the gut wall. Thus, as a result of infection NEJ migration through the jejunum wall was reduced with 78%. Considerable resistance was also detected in the duodenum (50% reduction in NEJ migration), mid jejunum (65% reduction) and ileum (75% reduction). Thus, the entire small intestine is an important immune barrier. The duration of resistance was at least three months (n=6).
Induction of Resistance
To investigate the site in the host where resistance against Fasciola hepatica is induced, we followed the infection route of the parasite: gut mucosa-peritoneal cavity-liver.
The role of gut penetration in the induction of resistance was investigated in the following way. After gut penetration of NEJs of the primary infection, further migration of NEJs to the liver was prevented by 1) flukicide treatment of the rats or 2) capturing the NEJs using the ex vivo gut model. Both flukicide treatment of the rats and capturing of NEJs after gut penetration prevented further migration to the liver, because four weeks after infection, all rats had healthy looking livers. Surprisingly, none of the rats were protected against a challenge infection. Thus, gut passage by itself does not induce resistance against Fasciola hepatica expressed in the gut mucosa.
After penetration of the intestinal wall Fasciola hepatica enters the peritoneal cavity and migrates towards the liver. This route was imitated by injecting NEJs of the primary infection in the peritoneal cavity or between the liver lobes. As a result, four weeks after infection all rats were highly resistant against a challenge infection. The average level of protection at gut level was 78.8% (±4.6% SEM; n=11). Apparently, immunity is induced in the route peritoneal cavity-liver and not during gut passage. Based on these results in later vaccination studies the antigen was injected in the peritoneal cavity.
Immune Mechanisms Against Fasciola hepatica in the Gut Mucosa
Gut segments of immune and naive rats were prepared for (immuno)histochemistry and compared for immunoglobulin, T cell, NK cell, goblet cell, macrophage, mucosal mast cell and granulocyte responses. In immune rats frequencies of mucosal mast cells, eosinophils and IgE-positive cells were significantly increased, as compared to naive rats. Upon re-infection of immune rats with Fasciola hepatica in a segment of the jejunum, challenge parasites are eliminated in the gut mucosa within two hours. At this time interval after infection challenge NEJs were coated with IgG1 and IgG2a antibodies. At the same time infiltrates of eosinophils were associated with the NEJs. Moreover, the level of protection at gut level strongly correlated with eosinophil responses in the gut mucosa and IgG1 responses directed against NEJ-antigen in the serum. These observations indicate that IgG1 (and IgG2a) antibodies and eosinophils are essential for protection.
Vaccination Studies
Stages of Fasciola hepatica
The developmental stage of Fasciola hepatica inducing the best protection was investigated. Extracts of NEJs and adult flukes were prepared and injected intraperitoneally. Antigens from the NEJ stage appeared far superior: 57.3% (±6.2% SEM; n=10) protection at gut level was achieved, whereas adult stage antigens resulted in only 13.3% (±6.2% SEM; n=11) protection.
To measure the total level of protection induced by antigens from both stages, challenge parasites reaching the target organ, the liver, were recovered. Using NEJ antigen as vaccine almost complete protection was achieved. The level of protection in these rats was 92.6% (±2.5% SEM; n=13). Adult stage antigens resulted in 56.3% (±15.9% SEM; n=8) protection.
Isolation of NEJ Antigen Fraction
Because immunoblot studies with sera from cattle and rats revealed two low molecular weight (LMW) NEJ antigens only recognized by immune rats (>70% protection), a limited NEJ antigen fraction was isolated by means of YM-30 filtration. During the procedure only 3% of the protein traversed the YM-30 membrane and the number of antigens was reduced from more than 50 to about five. Vaccination of rats with this LMW fraction resulted in 80% (±14% SEM; n=11) protection, based on the number of parasites that reached the target organ, the liver. Of the eleven rats tested, six rats were 100% protected, and all this without the use of any adjuvant! Also, at gut level, considerable resistance was expressed, 54% (±12% SEM; n=7).
Identification of Vaccine Antigens
To identify the protective antigens present in the YM-30 filtrate, proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE. After electroblotting of the proteins onto a PVDF membrane different parts of the membrane were used for immunoblotting, protein staining and N-terminal sequence analysis, respectively. Protein staining revealed five protein bands with approximate molecular weight of 30-32 kD, 28 kD, 25 kD, 20 kD and 12 kD, respectively. Of these proteins, only the 30-32 kD protein was recognized by all rats vaccinated with the YM-30 isolate (n=6), and was clearly immunodominant. Together with the observation that in natural immune rats challenge NEJs are coated with IgG1 antibodies and that the level of IgG1 in the serum is strongly correlated with protection, we conclude that this 30-32 kD protein is a protective antigen. The 30-32 kD protein was also recognized by orally infected rats (n=6), rats vaccinated with NEJ extract (n=6) and orally infected calves (n=6). On the contrary, the antigen was not recognized by rats vaccinated with adult stage antigens (n=3).
Vise versa, on immunoblots of the YM-30 filtrate obtained from adult flukes, no reaction was observed with sera from the vaccinated rats, infected rats or infected cattle.
The 30-32 kD protein band was excised from the PVDF-membrane and further identified using N-terminal sequencing. The protein displayed a N-terminal amino acid sequence comprising the sequence XXDVSWPFWDRMYNY (SEQ ID NO:1), in which the amino acids are given in the one letter code.
The N-terminal amino acids of the 30-32 kD immunogen showed 69% homology with the N-terminus of NEJ protein 4, as described by Tkalcevic et al. (1995), a 40 kD protein under non-reducing conditions. The N-terminus of the here disclosed 30-32 kD protein shows 54% homology with the prosequence of cathepsin L derived from adult F. hepatica (Wijffels et al. 1994). Characterization of the N-terminal of the 28 kD and 25 kD proteins from the PVDF membrane revealed the following sequences:
The immunoblotting studies together with the N-terminal sequence analyses demonstrate that procathepsin L is an immunodominant, protective antigen, whereas the enzymatic active cathepsin L is only occasionally recognized by immune cattle or rats. We show here that the presence of the prosequence (proregion) of cathepsin L is crucial for immunogenicity and protection. Moreover, the studies indicate that procathepsin L derived from juvenile stages such as NEJs is more protective than procathepsin L derived from adult stages.
Vaccination of Rats with Synthetic Peptides Derived from Cathepsin L
Rats were vaccinated with two synthetic peptides derived from the prosequence of cathepsin L, MCF03 (aa 15 to 33) and MCF06 (aa 25 to 42), and with a peptide derived from the mature enzyme, MCF04 (aa 110 to 129). When rats were vaccinated with peptide MCF03 or MCF06, these rats were protected against a challenge infection (
Amplification of a Unique Family of Cathepsin L Molecules from F. hepatica using NEJ-Specific Primers.
With primer set (i), the prosequence of cathepsin L was amplified, using adult F. hepatica cDNA as template. Three positive clones (da16, da12 and da13) were sequenced. Because of our primer choice, the clones started at nucleic acid 85 (Trp 21) and ended at na 381 (Tyr 119), according to the sequence as Wijffels et al. (1994). The sequences of the propeptide parts of these clones showed 96.5% to 98.4% homology to the sequence from Wijffels et al. (1994). The derived amino acid sequences showed 95.3% to 97.7% homology to the sequence of Wijffels et al. (1994).
With primer set (iii), the prosequence of cathepsin L was amplified, using cDNA from NEJs as template. Two PCR products were identified on agarose gel. The oligonucleotide with the expected size of 300 bp was pricked, amplified again using the same primers, and then ligated into the TA cloning vector. Of five different clones, the nucleotide sequences were determined. Forward and reverse sequence analysis revealed identical sequences. Clones da27, da26, da214 and da210 were very homologous, having 90.3% to 98.4% identities. These clones showed 79.5% to 82.2% homology to the prosequence (proregion) from Wijffels. The derived amino acid sequences showed 79.1% to 80.2% homology to the sequence from Wijffels. Clone da211 had a more different sequence and was more homologous (87.4) to the prosequence of Wijffels. The derived amino acid sequence showed 87.2% homology to the sequence from Wijffels. These data demonstrate that with the NEJ-specific primers a different “subfamily” of F. hepatica cathepsin L propeptides was amplified from NEJS, compared with the products amplified from adult F. hepatica using an adult F. hepatica specific primer set (16.6% to 23% discrepancies).
Moreover, the derived amino acid sequences from the “NEJ clones” reveal a significant change in the site where the prosequence from cathepsin L is cleaved off. In cathepsin L derived from adult F. hepatica, the prosequence is cleaved off between aa 106 and 107, with Arg at the P1 position, the uncharged polar Asn at the P2 position and Ala at the P1′ position. In the four homologous cathepsin L clones obtained with the NEJ-specific primers, however, we found Asn at the P1 position, Asp or Gly at the P2 position and Asp at the P1′ position. It is possible that other enzymes are needed to cleave off the propeptide of the “NEJ cathepsin L.” This may result in a less efficient (auto)activation of the proprotein in the NEJ, compared with adult parasites. Since the prosequence is found essential for the induction of protection, this likely explains the high levels of protection obtained with NEJ antigens, compared with adult stage antigens. It may also explain the absence of an immunoreactive proprotein in antigen extract from adult F. hepatica, as demonstrated on immunoblot.
With primer sets (ii) and (iv) the entire procathepsin L was amplified with adult stage cDNA as template.
Cathepsin L Peptide ELISA for the Diagnosis of F. hepatica Infection in Cattle and Sheep
Sera from two calves, sampled at regular intervals after infection with F. hepatica, were used to screen the peptide epitopes from cathepsin L (
Sera from 24 calves, monoinfected with F. hepatica, and from calves monoinfected with other, relevant parasites, were tested in the ELISA with peptide MCF04 and purified cathepsin L. All F. hepatica infected calves gave a positive reaction with both cathepsin L and peptide MCF04. On the contrary, neither of the calves infected with other, relevant parasites reacted with peptide MCF04. Accordingly, the D. Viviparus infected calves did not recognize peptide MCF04, whereas they gave a strong reaction with cathepsin L (cross-reactivity).
Peptide MCF04 was recognized by F. hepatica infected sheep from week 5 until at least week 16 after infection (
These results demonstrate that an ELISA based on peptide MCF04 from cathepsin L is both sensitive and specific. We conclude that this ELISA is highly valuable for diagnostic purposes regarding F. hepatica infections, both for cattle and sheep. This peptide ELISA overcomes the problem of cross-reactivity, especially found with D. Viviparus infected calves. Moreover, because naturally infected calves and sheep do not recognize the protective peptide epitopes MCF03 and MCF06, the combination of MCF04 for diagnostic purposes and peptides such as MCF03/MCF06 for vaccination purposes has considerable potential for a vaccine.
PCR, Subcloning and Sequencing
To further study and obtain the isolated nucleotide sequence of a protective protein useful for vaccination against a wide range of parasitic infections, amplification, cloning and sequencing techniques known in the art are used. For example, in the case of the protective 30-32 kD protein of Fasciola hepatica, in a first step in RT-PCR, primers A and B are used. The sequence of primer A involves a set of degenerate oligonucleotides deduced from the N-terminal amino acid sequence. Primer B is, for example, deduced from a spliced leader sequence located upstream at the 5′ end of parasitic mRNA (Davis et al., The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 31: 20026-20030, 1994). After amplification the obtained fragments are cloned and sequenced. A primer C is than selected located in the sequence between A and B and used together with a poly (dT) primer to amplify the corresponding 3′ part of the wanted nucleotide sequence, after which the whole gene or selected fragments thereof are cloned and sequenced. By using the isolated nucleotide sequences in amplification or screening methods varying or different parasitic sequences that encode functionally equivalent proteins can be identified in and isolated from related parasites. All such nucleotide sequences or fragments thereof can be cloned by method known in the art in suitable expression systems to generate recombinant proteins that can be used in anti-parasite vaccines or for diagnostic purposes, as described above. Assessment of the protective value of such proteins can of course be performed in the ex vivo model provided by the invention. The nucleotide sequences alone, or incorporated in suitable vector systems or constructs can also be employed in DNA vaccination protocols.
53. Michel A., M. Klinkert, and W. Kunz (1994). EMBL Data Library.
| Number | Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| 97200730 | Mar 1997 | EP | regional |
This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/382,479, filed Mar. 6, 2003 now abandoned, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/381,122, filed Dec. 23, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,551,594, issued Apr. 22, 2003, which claims priority from PCT Patent Application No. PCT/NL98/00146, filed Mar. 11, 1998, and published, in English, on Sep. 17, 1998, as WO 98/40497, the entire contents of each of which are incorporated herein by this reference.
| Number | Name | Date | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| 6551594 | van Milligen et al. | Apr 2003 | B1 |
| Number | Date | Country |
|---|---|---|
| 2215104 | Sep 1996 | CA |
| WO 9417820 | Aug 1994 | WO |
| WO 9629605 | Sep 1996 | WO |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 20080138358 A1 | Jun 2008 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 10382479 | Mar 2003 | US |
| Child | 11881598 | US | |
| Parent | 09381122 | US | |
| Child | 10382479 | US |
