Patent Grant
11028432
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique widely used in molecular biology. It derives its name from one of its key components, a DNA polymerase used to amplify a piece of DNA by in vitro enzymatic replication. As PCR progresses, the DNA generated (the amplicon) is itself used as a template for replication. This sets in motion a chain reaction in which the DNA template is exponentially amplified. With PCR, it is possible to amplify a single or few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating millions or more copies of the DNA piece. PCR employs a thermostable polymerase, dNTPs, and a pair of primers.
PCR is conceptually divided into 3 reactions, each usually assumed to occur over time at each of three temperatures. Such an “equilibrium paradigm” of PCR is easy to understand in terms of three reactions (denaturation, annealing, and extension) occurring at 3 temperatures over 3 time periods each cycle. However, this equilibrium paradigm does not fit well with physical reality. Instantaneous temperature changes do not occur; it takes time to change the sample temperature. Furthermore, individual reaction rates vary with temperature, and once primer annealing occurs, polymerase extension immediately follows. More accurate, particularly for rapid PCR, is a kinetic paradigm where reaction rates and temperature are always changing. Holding the temperature constant during PCR is not necessary as long as the products denature and the primers anneal. Under the kinetic paradigm of PCR, product denaturation, primer annealing, and polymerase extension may temporally overlap and their rates continuously vary with temperature. Under the equilibrium paradigm, a cycle is defined by 3 temperatures each held for a time period, whereas the kinetic paradigm requires transition rates and target temperatures. Illustrative time/temperature profiles for the equilibrium and kinetic paradigms are shown in
Paradigms are not right or wrong, but they vary in their usefulness. The equilibrium paradigm is simple to understand and lends itself well to the engineering mindset and instrument manufacture. The kinetic paradigm is more relevant to biochemistry, rapid cycle PCR, and melting curve analysis.
When PCR was first popularized in the late 1980s, the process was slow. A typical protocol was 1 minute for denaturation at 94° C., 2 minutes for annealing at 55° C., and 3 minutes for extension at 72° C. When the time for transition between temperatures was included, 8 minute cycles were typical, resulting in completion of 30 cycles in 4 hours. Twenty-five percent of the cycling time was spent in temperature transitions. As cycling speeds increased, the proportion of time spent in temperature transitions also increased and the kinetic paradigm became more and more relevant. During rapid cycle PCR, the temperature is usually changing. For rapid cycle PCR of short products (<100 bps), 100% of the time may be spent in temperature transition and no holding times are necessary. For rapid cycle PCR of longer products, a temperature hold at an optimal extension temperature may be included.
In isolation, the term “rapid PCR” is both relative and vague. A 1 hour PCR is rapid compared to 4 hours, but slow compared to 15 minutes. Furthermore, PCR protocols can be made shorter if one starts with higher template concentrations or uses fewer cycles. A more specific measure is the time required for each cycle. Thus, “rapid cycle PCR” (or “rapid cycling”) was defined in 1994 as 30 cycles completed in 10-30 minutes (1), resulting in cycles of 20-60 seconds each. This actual time of each cycle is longer than the sum of the times often programmed for denaturation, annealing and extension, as time is needed to ramp the temperatures between each of these stages. Initial work in the early 1990s established the feasibility of rapid cycling using capillary tubes and hot air for temperature control. Over the years, systems have become faster, and the kinetic requirements of denaturation, annealing, and extension have become clearer.
In one early rapid system, a heating element and fan from a hair dryer, a thermocouple, and PCR samples in capillary tubes were enclosed in a chamber (2). The fan created a rapid flow of heated air past the thermocouple and capillaries. By matching the thermal response of the thermocouple to the sample, the temperature of the thermocouple closely tracked the temperature of the samples, even during temperature changes. Although air has a low thermal conductivity, rapidly moving air against the large surface area exposed by the capillaries was adequate to cycle the sample between denaturation, annealing, and extension temperatures. Electronic controllers monitored the temperature, adjusted the power to the heating element, and provided the required timing and number of cycles. For cooling, the controller activated a solenoid that opened a portal to outside air, introducing cooling air to the otherwise closed chamber.
Temperatures could be rapidly changed using the capillary/air system. Using a low thermal mass chamber, circulating air, and samples in glass capillaries, PCR products >500 bp were visualized on ethidium bromide stained gels after only 10 minutes of PCR (30 cycles of 20 seconds each) (3). Product yield was affected by the extension time and the concentration of polymerase. With 30 second cycle times (about 10 seconds between 70 and 80° C. for extension), the band intensity increased as the polymerase concentration was increased from 0.1 to 0.8 Units per 10 μl reaction. It is noted that polymerase Unit definitions can be confusing. For native Taq polymerase, 0.4 U/10 μl is about 1.5 nM under typical rapid cycling conditions (50).
Rapid protocols use momentary or “0” second holds at the denaturation and annealing temperatures. That is, the temperature-time profiles show temperature spikes for denaturation and annealing, without holding the top and bottom temperatures. Denaturation and annealing can occur very quickly.
Rapid and accurate control of temperature allowed analytical study of the required temperatures and times for PCR. For an illustrative 536 bp fragment of human genomic DNA (β-globin), denaturation temperatures between 91° C. and 97° C. were equally effective, as were denaturation times from <1 second to 16 seconds. However, it was found that denaturation times longer than 16 seconds actually decreased product yield. Specific products in good yield were obtained with annealing temperatures of 50-60° C., as long as the time for primer annealing was limited. That is, best specificity was obtained by rapid cooling from denaturation to annealing and an annealing time of <1 second. Yield was best at extension temperatures of 75-79° C., and increased with extension time up to about 40 seconds.
Conclusions from this early work were: 1) denaturation of PCR products is very rapid with no need to hold the denaturation temperature, 2) annealing of primers can occur very quickly and annealing temperature holds may not be necessary, and 3) the required extension time depends on PCR product length and polymerase concentration. Also, rapid cycle PCR is not only faster, but better in terms of specificity and yield (4, 5) as long as the temperature was controlled precisely. PCR speed is not limited by the available biochemistry, but by instrumentation that does not control the sample temperature closely or rapidly.
However, most current laboratory PCR instruments perform poorly with momentary denaturation and annealing times, and many don't even allow programming of “0” second holding periods. Time delays from thermal transfer through the walls of conical tubes, low surface area-to-volume ratios, and heating of large samples force most instruments to rely on extended times at denaturation and annealing to assure that the sample reaches the desired temperatures. With these time delays, the exact temperature vs time course becomes indefinite. The result is limited reproducibility within and high variability between commercial products (6). Many instruments show marked temperature variance during temperature transitions (7, 8). Undershoot and/or overshoot of temperature is a chronic problem that is seldom solved by attempted software prediction that depends on sample volume. Such difficulties are compounded by thermal properties of the instrument that may change with age.
Over time, conventional heat block instruments have become faster, with incremental improvements in “thin wall” tubes, more conductive heat distribution between samples, low thermal mass blocks and other “fast” modifications. Nevertheless, it is unusual for these systems to cycle rapidly enough to complete a cycle in less than 60 seconds. A few heat block systems can achieve <60 second cycles, usually restricted to 2-temperature cycling between a limited range of temperatures. By flattening the sample container, rapid cycling can be achieved by resistive heating and air cooling (9), or by moving the sample in a flexible tube between heating zones kept at a constant temperature (U.S. Pat. No. 6,706,617).
Commercial versions of the air/capillary system for PCR have been available since 1991 (1) and for real-time PCR since 1996 (10, 11). Rapid cycling capabilities of other instruments are often compared against the air/capillary standard that first demonstrated 20-60 second cycles. Oddly enough, there has been a trend to run the capillary/air systems slower over the years, perhaps reflecting discomfort with “0” second denaturation and annealing times by many users. Also, heat-activated enzymes require long activation periods, often doubling run times even when “fast” activation enzymes are used. Another compromise away from rapid cycling is the use of plastic capillaries. These capillaries are not thermally matched to the instrument, so 20 second holds at denaturation and annealing are often required to reach the target temperatures (12).
Some progress in further decreasing the cycle times for PCR has occurred in microsystems, where small volumes are naturally processed (13, 14). However, even with high surface area-to-volume sample chambers, cycles may be long if the heating element has a high thermal mass and is external to the chamber (15). With thin film resistive heaters and temperature sensors close to the samples, 10-30 minute amplification can be achieved (16, 17).
While cooling of low thermal mass systems is usually by passive thermal diffusion and/or by forced air, several interesting heating methods have been developed. Infrared radiation can be used for heating (18) with calibrated infrared pyrometry for temperature monitoring (19). Alternatively, thin metal films on glass capillaries can serve as both a resistive heating element and a temperature sensor for rapid cycling (20). Finally, direct Joule heating and temperature monitoring of the PCR solution by electrolytic resistance is possible and has been implemented in capillaries (21). All of the above methods transfer heat to and from fixed samples.
Instead of heat transfer to and from stationary samples, the samples can be physically moved to different temperature baths, or through channels with fixed temperature zones, Microfluidic methods have become popular, with the PCR fluid passing within channels through different segments kept at denaturation, annealing, and extension temperatures. Continuous flow PCR has been demonstrated within serpentine channels that pass back and forth through 3 temperature zones (22) and within loops of increasing or decreasing radius that pass through 3 temperature sectors (23). A variant with a serpentine layout uses stationary thermal gradients instead of isothermal zones, to more closely fit the kinetic paradigm of PCR (24). To limit the length of the microchannel necessary for PCR, some systems shuttle samples back and forth between temperature zones by bi-directional pressure-driven flow (25), pneumatics (26), or electrokinetic forces (27). Instead of linear shuttling of samples, a single circular channel can be used with sample movement driven as a magnetic ferrofluid (28) or by convection (29). One potential advantage of microsystem PCR, including continuous flow methods, is cycling speed.
Although some microsystems still require >60 second cycles, many operate in the 20-60 second cycle range of rapid cycle PCR (13, 30). Minimum cycle times ranging from 16-37 seconds have been reported for infrared heating (18, 19). Metal coated capillaries have achieved 40 second PCR cycles (20), while direct electrolytic heating has amplified with 21 second cycles (20). Minimum cycle times reported for closed loop convective PCR range from 24-42 seconds (29, 31). Several groups have focused on reducing PCR cycle times to <20 seconds, faster than the original definition of rapid cycle PCR that was first demonstrated in 1990. Thin film resistive heating of stationary samples has reduced cycle times down to 17 seconds for 25 μl samples (32) and 8.5 seconds for 100 nl samples (17). Continuous flow systems have achieved 12-14 second cycles with thermal gradient PCR (24) and sample shuttling (26), while a ferrofluid loop claims successful PCR with 9 second cycles (28). Continuous flow systems through glass and plastic substrates have achieved cycle times of 6.9 seconds (22) and 5.2 seconds (23) for various size PCR products. Alternating hot and cool water conduction through an aluminum substrate amplified 1 μl droplets under oil with 5.25 second cycles (33). Similarly, water conduction through a porous copper block amplified 5 μl samples with 4.6 second cycles (34). A continuous flow device of 1 μl reaction plugs augmented by vapor pressure achieved 3 second cycles (35). Additionally, there are reports that claim to amplify an 85 bp fragment of the Stx bacteriophage of E. coli in capillaries with 2.7 second cycles by immersion of the capillaries in gallium sandwiched between Peltier elements (36). Alternatively, PCR amplification in capillaries cycled by pressurized hot and cool gases obtained 2.6 second cycles (48).
Table 1 summarizes work to minimize PCR cycle times to less than the 20 second cycles that originally defined “Rapid PCR”. Over the past 20 years, new prototype instruments have been developed that incrementally improve cycling speed. However, practical PCR performance (efficiency and yield) is often poor. As a general rule, as cycles become increasingly shorter, claims for successful PCR correlate with lower complexity targets (bacteria, phage, multicopy plasmids, or even PCR products) that are used at higher starting concentrations (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,210,882, wherein 5 ng of amplicon was used as the starting sample). Indeed, none of the studies listed in Table 1 with <20 second cycles used complex eukaryotic DNA such as human DNA. The starting copy number of template molecules is often very high (e.g., 180,000,000 copies of lambda phage/μl), so that little amplification is needed before success is claimed. Furthermore, the lack of no template controls in many studies raises questions regarding the validity of positive results, especially in an environment with high template concentrations. One instrument-oriented report focuses extensively on the design and modeling of the thermal cycling device, with a final brief PCR demonstration using a high concentration of a low complexity target. Heating and cooling rates (up to 175° C./s) have been reported based on modeling and measurements without PCR samples present (17).
One way to decrease cycle time is to introduce variations to the PCR protocol to ease the temperature cycling requirements. Longer primers with higher Tms allow higher annealing temperatures. By limiting the product length and its Tm, denaturation temperatures can be lowered to just above the product Tm. In combination, higher annealing and lower denaturation temperatures decrease the temperature range required for successful amplification. Reducing 3-step cycling (denaturation, annealing, and extension) to 2-steps (denaturation and a combined annealing/extension step) also simplifies the temperature cycling requirements. Both decreased temperature range and 2-step cycling are typical for the studies in Table 1 with cycle times <20 seconds. Two-step cycling can, however, compromise polymerase extension rates if the combined annealing/extension step is performed at temperatures lower than the 70 to 80° C. temperature optimum where the polymerase is most active. Polymerase extension rates are log-linear with temperature until about 70-80° C., with a reported maximum of 60-120 bp/s (50).
Even with protocol variations, amplification efficiency and yield are often poor when cycle times are <20 seconds when compared to control reactions (22, 23). These efforts towards faster PCR appear dominated by engineering with little focus on the biochemistry. As cycle times decrease from 20 seconds towards 2 seconds, PCR yield decreases and finally disappears, reflecting a lack of robustness even with simple targets at high copy number.
The instrumentation in various references disclosed in Table 1 may be suitable for extremely fast PCR, if reaction conditions are compatible. As disclosed herein, a focus on increased concentrations of primers, polymerase, and Mg++ allows for “extreme PCR” (PCR with <20 second cycles (30 cycles in <10 min)), while retaining reaction robustness and yield.
In one embodiment of the present invention, a device for thermal cycling a plurality of samples is provided, the device comprising an inductive heating unit through which a current is passed, the inductive heating unit configured to receive therein an array of sample wells formed in an electrically conductive material, wherein when received, the array is suspended within the inductive heating unit, a power supply for providing the current to the inductive heating unit, and an air source configured to provide air to cool the array of sample wells. In various other embodiments, the device further comprises a switching mechanism controlled by a heat source or a fluorescent value for controlling the power supply and the fan.
In one illustrative embodiment, the samples are PCR samples and the array is thermal cycled between an annealing/elongation temperature and a denaturation temperature for a plurality of cycles.
In a further illustrative embodiment, each cycle is completed in a cycle time less than 15 seconds per cycle, while in another such embodiment, each cycle is completed in less than 2 seconds per cycle.
In yet another such embodiment, each of a plurality of the sample wells comprise a target nucleic acid, a thermostable polymerase, and primers configured for amplification of the target nucleic acid sequence, wherein the polymerase is provided at a concentration of at least 0.5 μM and primers are each provided at a concentration of at least 2 μM.
In still another such embodiment, each of a plurality of the sample wells comprise a target nucleic acid, a thermostable polymerase, and primers configured for amplification of the target nucleic acid sequence, wherein the polymerase and primers are provided at a ratio of (about 0.03 to about 0.4 polymerase):(total primer concentration), and the polymerase concentration is at least 0.5 μM.
Additional features of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon consideration of the following detailed description of preferred embodiments exemplifying the best mode of carrying out the invention as presently perceived.
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), 0.42 seconds (
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). Cycle times included a 0.1 to 0.4 second hold in a 60° C. bath.
As used herein, the terms “a,” “an,” and “the” are defined to mean one or more and include the plural unless the context is inappropriate. Ranges may be expressed herein as from “about” one particular value, and/or to “about” another particular value. The term “about” is used herein to mean approximately, in the region of, roughly, or around. When the term “about” is used in conjunction with a numerical range, it modifies that range by extending the boundaries above and below the numerical values set forth. In general, the term “about” is used herein to modify a numerical value above and below the stated value by a variance of 5%. When such a range is expressed, another embodiment includes from the one particular value and/or to the other particular value. Similarly, when values are expressed as approximations, by use of the antecedent “about,” it will be understood that the particular value forms another embodiment. It will be further understood that the endpoints of each of the ranges are significant both in relation to the other endpoint, and independently of the other endpoint.
The word “or” as used herein means any one member of a particular list and also includes any combination of members of that list.
As used herein, the transitional phrase “consisting essentially of” means that the scope of a claim is to be interpreted to encompass the specified materials or steps recited in the claim, “and those that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristic(s)” of the claimed invention. See, In re Her; 537 F.2d 549, 551-52, 190 U.S.P.Q. 461, 463 (CCPA 1976) (emphasis in the original); see also MPEP § 2111.03. Thus, the term “consisting essentially of” when used in a claim of this invention is not intended to be interpreted to be equivalent to “comprising.” By “sample” is meant an animal; a tissue or organ from an animal; a cell (either within a subject, taken directly from a subject, or a cell maintained in culture or from a cultured cell line); a cell lysate (or lysate fraction) or cell extract; a solution containing one or more molecules derived from a cell, cellular material, or viral material (e.g. a polypeptide or nucleic acid); or a solution containing a naturally or non-naturally occurring nucleic acid, which is assayed as described herein. A sample may also be any body fluid or excretion (for example, but not limited to, blood, urine, stool, saliva, tears, bile) that contains cells, cell components, or nucleic acids.
The phrase “nucleic acid” as used herein refers to a naturally occurring or synthetic oligonucleotide or polynucleotide, whether DNA or RNA or DNA-RNA hybrid, single-stranded or double-stranded, sense or antisense, which is capable of hybridization to a complementary nucleic acid by Watson-Crick base-pairing. Nucleic acids of the invention can also include nucleotide analogs (e.g., BrdU, dUTP, 7-deaza-dGTP), and non-phosphodiester internucleoside linkages (e.g., peptide nucleic acid (PNA) or thiodiester linkages). In particular, nucleic acids can include, without limitation, DNA, RNA, cDNA, gDNA, ssDNA, dsDNA or any combination thereof.
By “probe,” “primer,” or “oligonucleotide” is meant a single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule of defined sequence that can base-pair to a second DNA or RNA molecule that contains a complementary sequence (the “target”). The stability of the resulting hybrid depends upon the length, GC content, nearest neighbor stacking energy, and the extent of the base-pairing that occurs. The extent of base-pairing is affected by parameters such as the degree of complementarity between the probe and target molecules and the degree of stringency of the hybridization conditions. The degree of hybridization stringency is affected by parameters such as temperature, salt concentration, and the concentration of organic molecules such as formamide, and is determined by methods known to one skilled in the art. Probes, primers, and oligonucleotides may be detectably-labeled, either radioactively, fluorescently, or non-radioactively, by methods well-known to those skilled in the art. dsDNA binding dyes (dyes that fluoresce more strongly when bound to double-stranded DNA than when bound to single-stranded DNA or free in solution) may be used to detect dsDNA. It is understood that a “primer” is specifically configured to be extended by a polymerase, whereas a “probe” or “oligonucleotide” may or may not be so configured.
By “specifically hybridizes” is meant that a probe, primer, or oligonucleotide recognizes and physically interacts (that is, base-pairs) with a substantially complementary nucleic acid (for example, a sample nucleic acid) under high stringency conditions, and does not substantially base pair with other nucleic acids.
By “high stringency conditions” is meant conditions that allow hybridization comparable with that resulting from the use of a DNA probe of at least 40 nucleotides in length, in a buffer containing 0.5 M NaHPO4, pH 7.2, 7% SDS, 1 mM EDTA, and 1% BSA (Fraction V), at a temperature of 65° C., or a buffer containing 48% formamide, 4.8×SSC, 0.2 M Tris-Cl, pH 7.6, 1× Denhardt's solution, 10% dextran sulfate, and 0.1% SDS, at a temperature of 42° C. Other conditions for high stringency hybridization, such as for PCR, northern, Southern, or in situ hybridization, DNA sequencing, etc., are well known by those skilled in the art of molecular biology (47).
In an illustrative embodiment, methods and kits are provided for PCR with <20 second cycle times, with some embodiments using <10 second, <5 second, <2 second, <1 second, and <0.5 second cycle times. With these cycle times, a 30 cycle PCR is completed in <10 min, <5 min, <2.5 min, <1 min, <30 seconds, and <15 seconds, respectively. As PCR speeds become increasingly faster, the primer or polymerase concentrations, or both, are increased, thereby retaining PCR efficiency and yield.
Compromising any of the 3 component reactions of PCR (primer annealing, polymerase extension, and template denaturation) can limit the efficiency and yield of PCR. For example, if primers anneal to only 95% of the template, the PCR efficiency cannot be greater than 95%, even if 100% of the templates are denatured and 100% of the primed templates are extended to full length products. Similarly, if extension is only 95% efficient, the maximum possible PCR efficiency is only 95%. In order for the PCR product concentration to double each cycle, all the components must reach 100% completion. Denaturation, annealing and extension will be considered sequentially in the following paragraphs.
Inadequate denaturation is a common reason for PCR failure, in slow (>60 second cycles), rapid (20-60 second cycles), and extreme (<20 second cycles) PCR temperature cycling. The goal is complete denaturation each cycle, providing quantitative template availability for primer annealing. Initial denaturation of template before PCR, particularly genomic DNA, usually requires more severe conditions than denaturation of the amplification product during PCR. The original optimization of rapid cycle PCR (4) was performed after boiling the template, a good way to assure initial denaturation of genomic DNA. Incomplete initial denaturation can occur with high Tm targets, particularly those with flanking regions of high stability (37). This can compromise quantitative PCR, illustratively for genomic insertions or deletions, particularly if minor temperature differences during denaturation affect PCR efficiency (37-39). If prior boiling or restriction digestion (37) is not desired, and higher denaturation temperatures compromise the polymerase, adjuvants that lower product Tm can be used to help with denaturation.
Although 94° C. is often used as a default target temperature for denaturation, it is seldom optimal. PCR products melt over a 40° C. range, depending primarily on GC content and length (43). Low denaturation target temperatures have both a speed and specificity advantage when the PCR product melts low enough that a lower denaturation temperature can be used. The lower the denaturation temperature, the faster the sample can reach the denaturation temperature, and the faster PCR can be performed. Added specificity arises from eliminating all potential products with higher denaturation temperatures, as these potential products will remain double-stranded and will not be available for primer annealing. To amplify high Tm products, the target temperature may need to be increased above 94° C. However, most current heat stable polymerases start to denature above 97° C. and the PCR solution may boil between 95° C. and 100° C., depending on the altitude, so there is not much room to increase the temperature. Lowering the monovalent salt and Mg++ concentration lowers product Tm. Similarly, incorporating dUTP and/or 7-deaza-dGTP also lowers product Tm, but may decrease polymerase extension rates. Most proprietary PCR “enhancers” are simple organics that lower product Tm, enabling denaturation (and amplification) of high Tm products. Most popular among these are DMSO, betaine, glycerol, ethylene glycol, and formamide. In addition to lowering Tm, some of these additives also raise the boiling point of the PCR mixture (particularly useful at high altitudes). As the concentration of enhancer increases, product Tms decrease, but polymerase inhibition may increase.
Denaturation, however, need not be rate limiting even under extreme cycling conditions, because DNA unwinding is first order and very fast (10-100 msec), even when the temperature is only slightly above the product Tm. Denaturation occurs so rapidly at 2-3° C. above the Tm of the amplification product that it is difficult to measure, but complete denaturation of the amplicon probably occurs in less than 0.1 second. If the product melts in multiple domains, the target denaturation temperature should be 2-3° C. above the highest melting domain. As long as the sample reaches this temperature, denaturation is very fast, even for long products. Using capillaries and water baths (40), complete denaturation of PCR products over 20 kB occured in less than one second (52). Product Tms and melting domains are illustratively determined experimentally with DNA dyes and high resolution melting (41). Although Tm estimates can be obtained by software predictions (42), their accuracy is limited. Furthermore, observed Tms strongly depend on local reaction conditions, such as salt concentrations and the presence of any dyes and adjuvants. Thus, observed Tms are usually better matched to the reaction conditions.
Without any effect on efficiency, the approach rate to denaturation can be as fast as possible, for example 200-400° C./s, as shown in
Incomplete and/or misdirected primer annealing can result in poor PCR. Low efficiency results if not all template sites are primed. Furthermore, if priming occurs at undesired sites, alternative products may be produced. The goal is essentially complete primer annealing to only the desired sites each cycle, providing quantitative primed template for polymerase extension.
Rapid PCR protocols with 20-60 second cycles suggest an annealing time of <1 second at 5° C. below the Tm with 500 nM primers (52). Primer concentrations for instruments attempting <20 second cycles range from 200-1,000 nM each (Table 1). These concentrations are similar to those used in conventional PCR (>60 second cycles), where long annealing times are used. Lowering the primer concentration is often used to improve specificity, and increasing the primer concentration is seldom considered due to concerns regarding nonspecific amplification. However, with rapid cycling, improved specificity has been attributed to shorter annealing times (5). If this trend is continued, one would expect that very short annealing times of extreme PCR should tolerate high primer concentrations. To promote annealing, an annealing temperature 5° C. below the primer Tm is recommended for 20-60 second cycles. Tms are best measured experimentally by melting analysis using saturating DNA dyes and oligonucleotides under the same buffer conditions used for amplification. The primer is combined with its complementary target with a 5′-extension as a dangling end, to best approximate the stability of a primer annealed to its template, and melting analysis is performed.
In contrast to denaturation, annealing efficiency depends on the primer concentration. Primer annealing can become limiting at very fast cycle speeds. Primer annealing is a second order reaction dependent on both primer and target concentrations. However, during most of PCR, the primer concentration is much higher than the target concentration and annealing is effectively pseudo-first order and dependent only on the primer concentration. In this case, the fraction of product that is primed (the annealing efficiency) depends only on the primer concentration, not the product concentration, so that higher primer concentrations should allow for shorter annealing times. Furthermore, without being bound to theory, it is believed that the relationship is linear. As the annealing time becomes shorter and shorter, increased primer concentrations become necessary to maintain the efficiency and yield of PCR. For example, rapid cycling allows about 1-3 seconds for annealing at temperatures 5° C. below primer Tm (3). If this annealing time (at or below Tm-5° C.) is reduced 10-fold in extreme PCR, a similar priming efficiency would be expected if the primer concentration were increased 10-fold. As the available annealing time becomes increasingly shorter, the primer concentration should be made increasingly higher by approximately the same multiple. Typical rapid PCR protocols use 500 nM each primer. If the annealing time in extreme PCR is reduced 3 to 40-fold, the primer concentrations required to obtain the same priming efficiency are 1,500-20,000 nM each primer. This is equivalent to 3,000-40,000 nM total primers, higher than any primer concentration in Table 1. This suggests that one reason for poor efficiency in prior attempts at <20 second cycling is poor annealing efficiency secondary to inadequate primer concentrations. In extreme PCR, the primer concentrations are increased to 1.5-20 μM each to obtain excellent annealing efficiency despite annealing times of 0.05-0.3 seconds. Ever greater primer concentrations can be contemplated for ever shorter annealing times, using increased primer concentrations to offset decreased annealing times to obtain the same annealing efficiency. It is noted that most commercial instruments require a hold time of at least 1 second, while a few instruments allow a hold time of “0” seconds, but no commercial instrument allows a hold time of a fractional second. For some illustrative examples of extreme PCR, hold times in increments of 0.1 or 0.01 seconds may be desirable.
Another way to increase the annealing rate and shorten annealing times without compromising efficiency is to increase the ionic strength, illustratively by increasing the Mg++ concentration. Annealing rates are known in the art to increase with increasing ionic strength, and divalent cations are particularly effective for increasing rates of hybridization, including primer annealing.
Illustratively, the approach rate to the annealing target temperature may be as fast as possible. For example, at 200-800° C./s (
Polymerase extension also requires time and can limit PCR efficiency when extension times are short. Longer products are known to require longer extension times during PCR and a final extension of several minutes is often appended at the end of PCR, presumably to complete extension of all products. The usual approach for long products is to lengthen the time for extension. Using lower extension temperatures further increases required times, as in some cases of 2-step cycling where primer annealing and polymerase extension are performed at the same temperature.
Essentially complete extension of the primed template each cycle is required for optimal PCR efficiency. Most polymerase extension rates increase with temperature, up to a certain maximum. For Taq polymerase, the maximum is about 100 nucleotides/s at 75-80° C. and it decreases about 4-fold for each 10° C. that the temperature is reduced (50). For a 536 bp beta-globin product, 76° C. was found optimal in rapid cycle PCR (4). Faster polymerases have recently been introduced with commercial claims that they can reduce overall PCR times, suggesting that they may be able to eliminate or shorten extension holding times for longer products.
As an alternative or complement to faster polymerase extension rates, it has been found that increasing the concentration of polymerase reduces the required extension time. Given a standard Taq polymerase concentration in PCR (0.04 U/μl) or 1.5 nM (49) with 500 nM of each primer, if each primer is attached to a template, there is only enough polymerase to extend 0.15% of the templates at a time, requiring recycling of the polymerase over and over again to new primed templates in order to extend them all. By increasing the concentration of polymerase, more of the available primed templates are extended simultaneously, decreasing the time required to extend all the templates, presumably not by faster extension rates, but by extending a greater proportion of the primed templates at any given time.
To a first approximation, for small PCR products (<100 bp), the required polymerization time appears to be directly proportional to the polymerization rate of the enzyme (itself a function of temperature) and the polymerase concentration. The required time is also inversely proportional to the length of template to be extended (product length minus the primer length). By increasing the polymerase activity 20-300 fold over the standard activity of 0.04 U/μl in the PCR, extreme PCR with <20 second cycles can result in high yields of specific products. That is, activities of 0.8-12 U/μl (1-16 μM of KlenTaq) enable two-step extreme PCR with combined annealing/extension times of 0.1-1.0 second. The highest polymerase activity used previously was 0.5 U/μl (Table 1). For two-step PCR that is used in illustrative examples of extreme PCR, a combined annealing/extension step at 70-75° C. is advantageous for faster polymerization rates. Furthermore, because it simplifies temperature cycling, two-step PCR is typically used in illustrative examples of extreme cycling (<20 second cycles) and both rapid annealing and rapid extension must occur during the combined annealing/extension step. Therefore, both increased primer concentrations and increased polymerase concentrations are used in illustrative examples, resulting in robust PCR under extreme two-temperature cycling. Illustratively, primer concentrations of 1.5-20 μM each and polymerase concentrations of 0.4-12 U/μl of any standard polymerase (0.5-16 μM of KlenTaq) are necessary with combined annealing/extension times of 0.05-5.0 seconds at 50-75° C., as illustrated in the Examples to follow. Because there is only one PCR cycling segment for both annealing and extension, extreme PCR conditions require enhancement of both processes, illustratively by increasing the concentrations of both the primers and the polymerase.
Extreme three-temperature cycling is also envisioned, where the annealing and extension steps are kept separate at different temperatures. In this case, the time allotted to annealing and extension steps can be individually controlled and tailored to specific needs. For example, if only the annealing time is short (0.05-0.2 seconds) and the extension time is kept comparatively long (illustratively for 1, 2, 5, 10 or 15 seconds), only the primer concentrations need to be increased for efficient PCR. Alternatively, if the extension time is short (<1 sec within 70-80° C.), but the annealing time is long, it is believed that only the polymerase concentration needs to be increased to obtain efficient PCR. It is understood that efficient PCR has an illustrative efficiency of at least 70%, more illustratively of at least 80%, and most illustratively of at least 90%, with >95% efficiency achievable in many instances.
For products longer than 100 bp, efficient extension using extreme PCR may need a combination of high polymerase concentration and increased extension time. If the polymerase is in excess, the minimum time illustratively should be the extension length (defined as the product length minus the primer length) in bases divided by the polymerase extension rate in bases/second. However, as previously noted, the polymerase is usually only saturating in the beginning of PCR, before the concentration of template increases to greater than the concentration of polymerase. One way to decrease cycle time is to use two-temperature PCR near the temperature maximum of the polymerase, typically 70-80° C. The required extension time can be determined experimentally using real-time PCR and monitoring the quantification cycle or Cq. For example, at a polymerase extension rate of 100 bases/second at 75° C., a 200 bp product would be expected to require about 2 seconds if the concentration of polymerase is in excess. Similarly, a 400 bp product would be expected to require about 4 seconds using this same polymerase as long as its concentration is greater than the template being extended. If the polymerase is not in excess, adding more polymerase allows more templates to be extended at the same time, decreasing the required extension time in proportion to the concentration of polymerase.
The utility of any DNA analysis method depends on how fast it can be performed, how much information is obtained, and how difficult it is to do. Compared to conventional cloning techniques, PCR is fast and simple. Rapid cycle and extreme PCR focus on continued reduction of the time required. Real-time PCR increases the information content by acquiring data each cycle. Melting analysis can be performed during or after PCR to monitor DNA hybridization continuously as the temperature is increased.
Returning to the equilibrium and kinetic paradigms of PCR (
When the reaction conditions are configured according to at least one embodiment herein, it has been found that PCR can be performed at very fast rates, illustratively with some embodiments in less than one minute for complete amplification, with cycle times of less than two seconds. Illustratively, various combinations of increased polymerase and primer concentrations are used for this extreme PCR. Without being bound to any particular theory, it is believed that an excess concentration of primers will allow for generally complete primer annealing, thereby increasing PCR efficiency. Also without being bound to any particular theory, it is believed that an increase in polymerase concentration improves PCR efficiency by allowing more complete extension. Increased polymerase concentration favors binding to the annealed primer, and also favors rebinding if a polymerase falls off prior to complete extension. The examples below show that extreme PCR has been successful, even when starting with complex eukaryotic genomic DNA and single-copy targets.
Although KlenTaq was used in the Examples to follow, it is believed that any thermostable polymerase of similar activity will perform in a similar manner in extreme PCR, with allowances for polymerase extension rate. For example, Herculase, Kapa2G FAST, KOD Phusion, natural or cloned Thermus aquaticus polymerase, Platinum Tag, GoTaq and Fast Start are commercial preparation of polymerases that should enable extreme PCR when used at the increased concentrations presented here, illustratively adjusted for differences in enzyme activity rates.
Because no current commercial PCR instrument allows for two second cycle times, a system 4 was set up to test proof of concept for extreme PCR. However, it is understood that the system 4 is illustrative and other systems that can thermocycle rapidly are within the scope of this disclosure. As shown in
The sample container 20 is held by a tube holder 22 attached to a stepper motor shaft 26 by arm 21. The tube holder 22 was machined from black Delrin plastic to hold 2-5 sample containers 20 (only one sample container 20 is visible in
The stepper motor 24 (Applied Motion Products, #HT23-401, 3V, 3A) is positioned between the water baths 10 and 14 so that all sample containers 20 in the tube holder 22 could flip between each water bath 10 and 14, so that the portion of each sample container 20 containing samples are completely submerged. The stepper motor 24 is powered illustratively by a 4SX-411 nuDrive (National Instruments, not shown) and controlled with a PCI-7344 motion controller and NI-Motion Software (version 8.2, National Instruments) installed on CPU 40. Stepper motor 24 rotates between water baths 10 and 14 in about 0.1 second. ) juxtaposed over a trace of the position of the sample container 20 (
) for a run where stepper motion was triggered at 90° C. and 50° C. As can be seen in
In some examples, system 4 is also configured for real-time monitoring. As shown in
Light from an Ocean Optics LLS-455 LED Light Source 256 was guided by fiber optics cable 252 (Ocean Optics P600-2-UV-VIS, 600 μm fiber core diameter) into a Hamamatsu Optics Block 258 with a 440+/−20 nm excitation interference filter, a beamsplitting 458 nm dichroic and a 490+/−5 nm emission filter (all from Semrock, not shown). Epifluorescent illumination of the capillary was achieved with another fiber optic cable (not shown) placed approximately 1-2 mm distant from and in-line with the one sample capillary when positioned in the cooler water bath. Emission detection was with a Hamamatsu PMT 62.
Unless otherwise indicated, PCR was performed in 5 μl reaction volumes containing 50 mM Tris (pH 8.3, at 25° C.), 3 mM MgCl2, 200 μM each dNTP (dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP), 500 μg/ml non-acetylated bovine serum albumin (Sigma), 2% (v/v) glycerol (Sigma), 50 ng of purified human genomic DNA, and 1× LCGreen® Plus (BioFire Diagnostics). The concentration of the primers and the polymerase varied according to the specific experimental protocols. Klentaq1™ DNA polymerase was obtained from either AB Peptides, St. Louis, Mo., or from Wayne Barnes at Washington University (St. Louis). The molecular weight of KlenTaq is 62.1 kD with an extinction coefficient at 280 nm of 69,130 M−1 cm−1, as calculated from the sequence (U.S. Pat. No. 5,436,149). Mass spectrometry confirmed a predominate molecular weight of 62 kD, and denaturing polyacrylamide gels showed that the major band was greater than 80% pure by integration. Using the absorbance and purity to calculate the concentration indicated an 80 μM stock in 10% glycerol. Final polymerase concentrations were typically 0.25-16 μM. One μM KlenTaq is the equivalent of 0.75 U/μl, with a unit defined as 10 nmol of product synthesized in 30 min at 72° C. with activated salmon sperm DNA. Primers were synthesized by the University of Utah core facility, desalted, and concentrations determined by A260. The final concentrations of each primer typically varied from 2.5-20 μM.
A 45 bp fragment of KCNE1 was amplified from human genomic DNA using primers CCCATTCAACGTCTACATCGAGTC (SEQ ID NO:1) and TCCTTCTCTTGCCAGGCAT (SEQ ID NO:2). The primers bracketed the variant rs#1805128 (c.253G>A) and amplified the sequence:
Real-time monitoring of the 45 bp KCNE1 reaction was performed using 1 μM polymerase, 10 μM of each primer, and 1.3% glycerol. The sample was monitored each cycle in air between the 2 water baths using the device of
As seen in
In this example, a 58 bp fragment bracketing an A>G variant (rs #2834167) in the interleukin 10 beta receptor was amplified with primers CTACAGTGGGAGTCACCTGC (SEQ ID NO:4) and GGTACTGAGCTGTGAAAGTCAGGTT (SEQ ID NO:5) to generate the following amplicon: CTACAGTGGGAGTCACCTGCTTTTGCC(A/G)AAGGGAACCTGACTTTCACAGCTC AGTACC (SEQ ID NO:6). Extreme PCR was performed as described in Example 1 using the instrument shown in
The reaction mixtures in Example 1 were the same for both the extreme PCR and rapid cycle PCR, except for the amounts of polymerase and primers, and a minor difference in glycerol concentration that apparently caused the shift in Tm seen in
Similarly, little amplification was seen with primer concentrations of 2.5 μM. However, amplification was successful at 5 μM primer, with KlenTaq concentrations of 2-8 μM, and amplification continued to improve with increasing concentrations. Excellent amplification was achieved with primer concentrations of about 10-20 μM primer.
Without being bound to theory, it appears that the ratio between the amount of enzyme and amount of primer is important for extreme PCR cycling, provided that both are above a threshold amount. It is noted that the above amounts are provided based on each primer. Given that the polymerase binds to each of the duplexed primers, the total primer concentration may be the most important. For KlenTaq, suitable ratios are 0.03-0.4 (3-40% enzyme to total primer concentration), with an illustrative minimum KlenTaq concentration of about 0.5 μM, and more illustratively about 1.0 μM, for extreme PCR. The primers may be provided in equimolar amounts, or one may be provided in excess, as for asymmetric PCR. The optimal polymerase:primer percentage may also depend on the temperature cycling conditions and the product size. For example, standard (slow) temperature cycling often uses a much lower polymerase to primer percentage, typically 1.5 nM (0.04 U/μl) polymerase (49) and 1,000 nM total primer concentration, for a percentage of 0.15%, over 10 times lower than the percentages found effective for extreme PCR.
The same PCR target as in Example 3 was amplified with 8 μM polymerase and 20 μM each primer in a 19 gauge steel hypodermic needle, to increase thermal transfer and cycling speeds. The polymerase to total primer percentage was 20%. Amplification was performed on the instrument of
A 102 bp fragment of the NQO1 gene was amplified using primers CTCTGTGCTTTCTGTATCCTCAGAGTGGCATTCT (SEQ ID NO:10) and CGTCTGCTGGAGTGTGCCCAATGCTATA (SEQ ID NO:11) and the instrument of
Extreme PCR was used to amplify 135 bp and 337 bp fragments of the BBS2 gene using the instrument shown in
Extreme PCR was performed on 1,000 copies of the amplified templates in a total volume of 5 μl using the common primers ACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACACAAAAA(SEQ ID NO:16) and GAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAGAAAAA (SEQ ID NO:17) each at 2 μM with 2 μM polymerase and 2% glycerol. The 135 bp BBS2 fragment resulted in a 226 bp product requiring extension of 176 or 185 bases (depending on the primer), while the 337 bp BBS2 fragment resulted in a 428 bp PCR product requiring extension of 378 or 387 bases. Specific amplification was verified on agarose gels and by melting analysis. The extreme PCR temperature profile used for the 226 bp product is shown in
Quantitative performance of PCR was assessed using the real-time instrument of
The extension time required for different product lengths using real-time PCR (
The synthetic template sequences were:
Optimal concentrations of primers and polymerase were first determined for the intermediate length 300-bp product using a 4 second combined annealing/extension segment with 4.9 seconds per cycles (
Required Extension Time=k2*(extension length)/([polymerase]*(polymerase speed))
Extreme PCR times can also be reduced with high Mg++ concentrations. A 60 bp fragment of AKAP10 was amplified with primers:
Each reaction was in a 1 μl volume with time based control (0.07 seconds in a 94° C. water bath, 0.1-0.4 seconds in a 60° C. water bath) for 35 cycles using 2-7 mM MgCl2. The sample volume was 1 μl, with 5 ng human genomic DNA, 20 μM primers, and 8 μM polymerase. Using a 0.42 second per cycle protocol, when the MgCl2 was 2-3 mM, no product was observed on melting curves (
The high concentrations of primer and polymerase used in extreme PCR can have detrimental effects when used at slower cycling speeds. Non-specific products were obtained on rapid cycle or block based instruments that are 32- or 106-fold slower, respectively.
It also noted that the yield is enhanced in extreme PCR, resulting from high primer and polymerase concentrations. Extreme PCR produced over 30-fold the amount of product compared to rapid cycle PCR, using quantitative PCR for comparison (data not shown).
Examples 1-10 were all performed using one or more of the devices described in
While the above examples all employ PCR, it is understood that PCR is illustrative only, and increased primer and enzyme concentrations combined with shorter amplification times are envisioned for nucleic acid amplification methods other than PCR. Illustrative enzymatic activities whose magnitude may be increased include polymerization (DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase), ligation, helical unwinding (helicase), or exonuclease activity (5′ to 3′ or 3′ to 5′), strand displacement and/or cleavage, endonuclease activity, and RNA digestion of a DNA/RNA hybrid (RNAse H). Amplification reactions include without limitation the polymerase chain reaction, the ligase chain reaction, transcription medicated amplification (including transcription-based amplification system, self-sustained sequence replication, and nucleic acid sequence-based amplification), strand displacement amplification, whole genome amplification, multiple displacement amplification, antisense RNA amplification, loop-mediated amplification, linear-linked amplification, rolling circle amplification, ramification amplification, isothermal oligonucleotide amplification, helicase chain reaction, and serial invasive signal amplification.
In general, as the enzyme activity is varied, the amplification time varies inversely by the same factor. For reactions that include primers, as the primer concentration is varied, the amplification time varies inversely by the same factor. When both primers and enzymes are required for amplification, both enzyme and primer concentrations should be varied in order to maximize the reaction speed. If primer annealing occurs in a unique segment of the amplification cycle (for example, a unique temperature during 3-temperature PCR), then the time required for satisfactory completion of primer annealing in that segment is expected to be inversely related to the primer concentration. Similarly, if the enzyme activity is required in a unique segment of the amplification cycle (for example, a unique temperature during 3-temperature PCR), then the time required for satisfactory completion of the enzymatic process in that segment is expected to be inversely related to the enzyme concentration within a certain range. Varying the primer or enzyme concentrations can be used to change the required times of their individual segments, or if both occur under the same conditions (such as in 2-temperature PCR or during an isothermal reaction process), it is expected that a change in both concentrations may be necessary to prevent one reaction from limiting the reaction speed. Increased Mg++ concentration can also be used in combination with increased enzyme and primer concentrations to further speed amplification processes. Higher Mg++ concentrations both increase the speed of primer annealing and reduce the time for many enzymatic reactions used in nucleic acid amplification.
Higher concentrations of Mg++, enzymes, and primers are particularly useful when they are accompanied by shorter amplification times or segments. When higher concentrations are used without shortening times, non-specific amplification products may occur in some cases, as the “stringency” of the reaction has been reduced. Reducing the amplification time or segment time(s) introduces a higher stringency that appears to counterbalance the loss of stringency from increased reactant concentrations. Conversely, reagent costs can be minimized by reducing the concentration of the reactants if these lower concentrations are counterbalanced by increased amplification times or segment times.
Increasing polymerase concentrations can reduce the time necessary for long-range PCR, illustratively where the target is 5-50 kb. Typically, 10 min to 30 min extension periods are used to amplify large targets because the target is so long that such times are needed: 1) for the polymerase to complete extension of a single target, and 2) for enzyme recycling to polymerize additional primed templates. This recycling of polymerase is not needed at the beginning of PCR, when the available enzyme outnumbers the primed template molecules. However, even before the exponential phase is finished, the number of polymerase molecules often becomes limiting and enzyme recycling is necessary. By increasing the concentration of the polymerase, the required extension period can be reduced to less than 5 minutes and possibly less than 2 minutes, while maintaining increased yield due to the high primer concentration. Although the actual enzyme speed is not increased, less recycling is necessary, affecting the minimum time required, approximately in a linear fashion with the enzyme concentration.
Cycle sequencing times can also be reduced by increasing primer and polymerase concentrations. Typically, standard cycle sequencing primer concentrations are 0.16 μM and the combined annealing/extension period is 10 min at 50-60 degrees C. By increasing the primer and polymerase concentrations by 10-fold, the time required for annealing/extension can be reduced approximately 10-fold. In both long PCR and cycle sequencing, the expected time required is inversely proportional to the polymerase or primer concentration, whichever is limiting.
PCR of fragments with ligated linkers that are used as primers in preparation for massively parallel sequencing can be completed in much less time than currently performed by combining extreme temperature cycling with higher concentrations of primers, polymerase, and/or Mg++.
In all of the above applications, it is expected that the specificity of the reaction is maintained by shorter amplification times. Although high primer and polymerase concentrations are expected by those well versed in the art to cause difficulty from non-specific amplification, minimizing the overall cycle time and/or individual segment times results in high specificity and efficiency of the PCR.
Specific conditions for extreme PCR are shown in Table 2. All data are presented except for the simultaneous optimization experiments for polymerase and primer concentrations for 3 of the targets. In Table 3, the quantitative relationships between variables are detailed. The inverse proportionality that relates the required annealing time to the primer concentration is approximately constant (k1) and defined by the equation (Required annealing time)=k1/[primer]. Using a range of typical values for these variables under conditions of legacy (standard) PCR, rapid cycle PCR, and extreme PCR produces ranges for the inverse proportionality constant that largely overlap (legacy 0.75-30, rapid cycle 0.2-10, and extreme 1-20). Because of this constant inverse proportionality, desired annealing times outside of those currently performed can be used to predict the required primer concentrations for the desired time. For example, using a constant of 5 (s*μM), for an annealing time of 0.01 s, a primer concentration of 500 μM can be calculated. Conversely, if a primer concentration of 0.01 μM were desired, the required annealing time would be 500 seconds. Although these conditions are outside the bounds of both legacy and extreme PCR, they predict a relationship between primer concentrations and annealing times that are useful for PCR success. Reasonable bounds for k1 across legacy, rapid cycle and extreme PCR are 0.5-20 (s×μM), more preferred 1-10 (s×μM) and most preferred 3-6 (s×μM).
Similar calculations can be performed to relate desired extension times to polymerase concentration, polymerase speed, and the length of the product to be amplified. However, because of many additional variables that affect PCR between legacy, rapid cycle and extreme PCR (polymerase, Mg++, buffers), performed in different laboratories over time, it may be best to look at the well-controlled conditions of extreme PCR presented here to establish an inverse proportionality between variables. This allows a quantitative expression between polymerase concentration, polymerase speed, product length, and the required extension time under extreme PCR conditions. The defining equation is (Required Extension Time)=k2(product length)/([polymerase]*(polymerase speed)). The experimentally determined k2 is defined as the proportionality constant in the above equation under conditions of constant temperature, Mg++, type of polymerase, buffers, additives, and concentration of dsDNA dye. For the 3 extreme PCR targets with two dimensional optimization of [polymerase] and [primer], the [polymerase] at the edge of successful amplification can be discerned across primer concentrations and related to the other 3 variables. As shown in Table 3, the values of k2 for these 3 different targets vary by less than a factor of 2, from which it is inferred that k2 is a constant and can be used to predict one variable if the others are known. The required extension time is proportional to the extension length (product length minus the primer length) and inversely proportional to the polymerase speed and concentration of polymerase. k2 has units of (1/μM) and an optimal value for the extreme PCR conditions used here of 0.5 (1/μM) with a range of 0.3-0.7 (1/μM). Similar values for k2 could be derived for other reaction conditions that vary in polymerase type, Mg++ concentration or different buffer or dye conditions.
Extreme PCR can be performed in any kind of container, as long as the temperature of the sample(s) can be changed quickly, and preferably homogeneously. Both intra-sample, and inter-sample homogeneity is important in many applications, illustratively for quantitative PCR where different PCR efficiencies of different samples translate directly to quantification errors. In addition to standard tubes and capillaries, micro-droplets of aqueous reactions suspended in an oil stream or thin 2-dimensional wafers provide good thermal contact. Continuous flow PCR of a sample stream (either dispersed as droplets, separated by bubbles, or other means to prevent mixing) past spatial segments at different temperatures is a good method for the temperature control needed for the speeds of extreme PCR.
Induction heating is a process of heating an electrically conducting object (usually a metal) by electromagnetic induction, whereby currents are generated within the object and resistance leads to Joule heating of the metal. An induction heating unit illustratively includes a radio frequency (RF) coil, through which a current, illustratively a high-frequency alternating current (AC), is passed, thereby forming the electromagnet. The power supply illustratively drives a circuit that provides electricity with low voltage and high frequency. The object is placed inside the wire coil of the electromagnet driven by the power supply, resulting in heating of the electrically conducting components of the object. Several groups have developed PCR instruments using induction heating (57, 58). However, at least one of those prototype instruments used sample tubes having volumes of 200 μL and they have not achieved fast PCR cycle times.
Furthermore, while copper is used herein, it is understood that other electrically conductive materials may be used, including silver. When silver is used, one may find an improvement in fluorescence signal. In some embodiments, a 2× improvement in fluorescence signal was seen when copper arrays were replaced with silver, particularly when fluorescence was measured in the blue and green wavelengths. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to use a silver coating or cladding onto another electrically conductive material, illustratively copper, thereby improving fluorescence signal and potentially eliminating the need for a PCR-friendly coating, as discussed below. Optionally, lower surface 318 may be painted black or other minimally reflective color to aid with IR heat sensing, as discussed below.
Reagents 321, illustratively elements of the PCR chemistry that are unique to each well in the array, such as PCR primer pairs, may be pre-spotted into the wells. PCT/US 13/36939 teaches various ways of spotting an array 322, as well as illustrative components for spotting, while U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010-0056383 teaches various means for minimizing cross-contamination upon filling, both of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties. In one example taught in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010-0056383, the reagents are spotted in or under a chemical that conditionally releases the reagents into solution, illustratively by heating or enzymatic digestion. With such a chemical barrier, array 322 may be loaded and used with or without a lid, while still minimizing cross-contamination. With faster cycling, i.e. no more than 15 sec/cycle, no more than 10 sec/cycle, no more than 5 sec/cycle, no more than 2 sec/cycle, any of the concentrations of polymerase, primers, and magnesium discussed above may be used. However, it is understood that this is illustrative only and that any suitable PCR chemistry may be used, depending on cycling conditions, amplicon length, and other factors. Some or all of the reagents may be pre-spotted into the array, with the remaining reagents provided with the sample, when the sample is added to each well 320 in array 322.
As seen in
Since copper can be somewhat inhibitory to PCR, it is understood that the array may be fabricated out of other conducting materials that are more compatible with PCR. It is also understood that copper may be used, with or without a coating that is compatible with PCR. Non-limiting illustrative coatings include other metals, plastics, ceramics, and glass. The coating may be provided on the entire upper surface 319 of array 322, or may be provided only within wells 320. In one illustrative example, upper surface 319 of array 322 may be sprayed with an acrylic, for example Krylon Acrylic Crystal Clear Gloss, to provide a PCR compatible surface. It is understood that any PCR-compatible coating or surfacing may be used. The array 322 may be configured for single use, or the coating may be replaceable or washable and array 322 may be reused. While copper is used in the examples herein, it is understood that coated copper and other conductive materials are within the scope of this disclosure. It is also understood that the array may be provided in a non-conductive material that is affixed to a conductive material.
It is understood that providing current from power supply 350 to coil 310 simultaneously heats all of the copper portions of array 322. Since wells 320 are provided as recesses within the array 322, the samples are heated on various sides. It is also understood that any heat transfer to array 322 ceases once the current is stopped. This is unlike when Peltier devices and other such heaters are used, wherein the heater continues to provide some heat even after current to the heater ceases. Thus, in the embodiments provided herein, heat sinks are not needed to draw heat from the heater. Furthermore, temperature gradients through the array material are minimized because the array does not need to be supported by or pressed against a portion of the instrument that is at a temperature other than that desired. In one embodiment, radial slots (not shown) are cut into the slug, which may prevent currents from running along an exterior circumference of the array, to provide for more even heating.
Turning back to
In the illustrative embodiment, array 322 is imaged using a camera 325, illustratively using FLIR Close-Up Lens 4×. In this embodiment, camera 325 provides heat map images of array 322, allowing for study of heat variation across the array. Such will allow further study of the effect of slots on the currents within the array, to find a shape of array 322 that provides for more uniform heating. It is understood, however, that camera 325 may be replaced with or supplemented by an optics block, such as optics blocks 25 or 250 in the above examples, or other optics blocks suitable for PCR, as are known in the art. Even when an optics block is used, heat sensor 328 may be used to trigger thermal cycling.
In an alternative embodiment, fluorescence may be used to trigger heating and cooling. A temperature-sensitive fluorescent dye may be used to indicate the temperature of the reaction. In one such embodiment, the dye does not interact with nucleic acids and does not change fluorescence based on the progress of PCR. One such dye is sulforhodamine B. Other such passive reference dyes and methods of using such dyes are disclosed in PCT/US 13/63939, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. In another embodiment, a specific well or wells may be loaded with a temperature-sensitive dye, and fluorescence from those wells may be used to indicate temperature. In either case, when fluorescence reaches a specific value, such can be used as a triggering event to move to the heating or cooling phase. In another alternative embodiment, the instrument may be calibrated such that a specific amount of current for a specific time period will result in array 322 reaching a specific temperature, and a specific amount of air for a specific period of time will result in array 322 reaching a specific lower temperature, to achieve appropriate cycling parameters,
The instrument of
Turning to
Using an array 322 coated with acrylic, a single PCR mixture was spread across the array, and reagents 321 were trapped in wells 320 using a layer of adhesive, as described above. The PCR buffer contained the high concentrations of DNA polymerase and primers required by an extreme PCR protocol. The resultant amplicon used is 62 bp with a GC content of 39% and a Tm of 77° C. LCGreen Plus, which fluoresces when bound to double-stranded DNA, was included in the mix to monitor the progress of the reaction. Cycling parameters are shown in
In one illustrative embodiment, two-step multiplex PCR is performed, wherein induction PCR with a device as shown in
It has been found that array 322 heats unevenly when current to electromagnet is increased, with the center remaining cooler than the edge 317 of array 322. Without being bound to theory, it is thought that the current induced by the oscillating magnetic field flows predominately around the edge of the circular array. Therefore, the heating effect is largely around the periphery of the circular array. With cycle times below approximately 1.5 sec/cycle, there is not sufficient time to complete the heat transfer from the edge to the center of the disc, resulting in an edge-to-center temperature gradient. Temperature uniformity can be achieved by slowing the cycle rate or by providing a dwell at the high and low temperatures, to allow the array to reach a uniform temperature.
It is also understood that the thickness of array 322 has an effect on how fast it may be cycled. Round arrays such as array 322 were tested with thicknesses from 0.005 inch down to 0.001 inch. The 0.005 inch arrays were slower than thinner arrays. However, it was found that arrays with a thickness of 0.001 inch could not regularly be formed without punctures. A thickness of 0.003 inches were used for illustrative arrays 522, while a thickness of 0.002 inch were used for illustrative arrays 522.
Array 522, as seen in
Array 622, as seen in
As discussed above, it appears that the currents caused by the magnetic field are generally stronger around the circular array, leaving the center cooler than the rest of the array. When desired, the embodiments shown in
Other features to reduce or eliminate a thermal gradient between the samples or sample receptacles may be used. For example, a pattern of conductive regions and electrically insulating regions may be used to provide a heating unit that increases the uniformity of thermal changes of the samples. The electrically conductive and electrically insulating regions may be formed in a uniform member, by connecting electrically conductive pieces with electrically insulating material or any suitable technique. In some embodiments, a greater concentration of outer edges of the conducting regions may be formed in a central portion of the sample heating unit than on an outer portion of the heating unit. For example, wedge-shaped conductive regions separated by the electrically insulating regions may be arranged to form a circular plate. In particular, one approach is to place a plurality of smaller electrically conducting objects within the magnetic field, illustratively equivalent in size, so that each of the electrically conducting objects is heated uniformly with the other electrically conducting objects.
Two electromagnets 710a and 710b are provided. The coils 712a and 712b of electromagnets 710a and 710b may be the same or different. In one illustrative embodiment, coils 712a and 712b are wound so that the current flows in the same direction through all the turns of both coils. Each electromagnet 710a and 710b is provided with a casing 709a and 709b. While
In the illustrative embodiment of
Array 738 is provided with a plurality of sample wells in a donut-shaped pattern. As shown, disc 722 mirrors this shape, with petals 724 leaving a donut hole. While it is within the scope of this disclosure for petals 724 to form a solid disc, the donut-shape of disc 722 has a reduced mass and should heat and cool more efficiently than a solid disc. It is understood that disc 722 may be provided in any shape, and may be matched to the shape of the array to be thermocycled. Illustrative shapes are elongated shapes similar to arrays 522 and 622. Such discs may be provided as a plurality of electrically conductive sections, illustratively symmetric sections or sections of the same size and shape, or of the same size but different shape. An elongated disc may be provided as two or four such sections, symmetric around either the long or short axis, or both.
Several patents, patent publications and non-patent documents are cited throughout the specification in order to describe the state of the art to which this invention pertains. Each of these documents and citations is incorporated herein by reference as though set forth in full.
Although the invention has been described in detail with reference to certain embodiments, variations and modifications exist within the scope and spirit of the invention as described and defined in the following claims.
B. subtilis
E. herbicola
B. subtilis
1Presumed single copy in a 20 nl droplet with Cq of 33 under SYBR Green monitoring, but no gel or melting analysis to confirm PCR product identity.
2A “Blank” sample was run, but it is not clear if this was a no template control.
3Article says [primer] is 0.5 mmol, patent application (US 2009/0275014 A1) says [primer] is 0.01-0.5 μM.
4Two pg E. coli DNA/μl, but copy number of phage in the DNA preparation is unknown.
5Dissertation says 0.5 μmol/10 μl (50 mM), patent (U.S. Pat. No. 6,472,186) says 50 pmol/10 μl (5 μM).
This application is a 35 USC § 371 national phase application of International Application Serial No. PCT/US2014/064092, filed Nov. 5, 2014, which claims the benefit, under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e), of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/900,329, filed Nov. 5, 2013, the entire contents of each of which are incorporated by reference herein. The claimed invention was made by, or on behalf of, the below listed parties to a joint research agreement. The parties to the joint research agreement are Idaho Technology, Inc. and the University of Utah. A Sequence Listing in ASCII text format, submitted under 37 C.F.R. § 1.821, entitled 1267-10_ST25.txt, 7,252 bytes in size, generated on May 5, 2016 and filed via EFS-Web, is provided in lieu of a paper copy. This Sequence Listing is hereby incorporated by reference into the specification for its disclosures.
| Filing Document | Filing Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| PCT/US2014/064092 | 11/5/2014 | WO | 00 |
| Publishing Document | Publishing Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| WO2015/069743 | 5/14/2015 | WO | A |
| Number | Name | Date | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
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