Patent Grant
8415638
1. Field of the Invention
The present disclosure relates generally to high-energy radiation monitoring and detection; more particularly, it relates to an ion chamber for detecting high-energy radiation.
2. Background Art
Detectors of high-energy, ionizing radiation are used in various applications. Such detectors, for example, include ion chambers, proportional counters, Geiger-Mueller counters, and scintillation counters. Among these, ion chambers are commonly used in neutron detectors.
In a typical neutron detector, the ion camber 14 is filled with a gas (such as He-3) that can interact with the thermal neutrons to produce ions. When a He-3 atom absorbs (captures) a thermal neutron, a nuclear reaction occurs and the resultant products are fast-moving tritium (H-3) and a proton. These fast-moving particles travel through the gas, ionizing some of the remaining He-3 atoms and thus creating an equal number of positive and negative ions. When a voltage is applied across the electrodes 15, 16 in the ion chamber 14, an electric field is created in the space between the electrodes. The ions move in response to the electric field with the positive and negative ions pulled in opposite directions toward each electrode. The ions are eventually neutralized at electrodes 15 and 16 resulting in an ion current that is directly proportional to the number of ions transferred to the electrodes. The number of ions transferred to the electrodes depends on their formation rate and hence the neutron flux. Thus, the ion currents measured by the ion chamber may be used to derive the magnitude of the neutron flux.
The ion current-voltage (I-V) characteristic curve for a gas in an ionization detector usually contains a flat region, called the “region of saturation” or “plateau.” Shown in
However, in general, gases employed in ionization detectors need not have a plateau in their current-voltage characteristics. For example, the relative scarcity of He-3 has lead to the use of gases such as BF3, which is known not to have a plateau in its I-V characteristic curve, as shown in
As is the case with all known ionization detectors, the ion current generated by the ionizing radiation is extremely small (on the order of 10−12 A), making it very difficult to accurately determine neutron flux. In addition, temperature and humidity changes in various electronic components, cables, etc. may further compromise the accuracy of the measurements. The situation is even worse under field conditions, which often include wide variations in temperature and humidity in addition to unwanted sources of vibration.
Furthermore, instability in leakage currents may also significantly degrade the accuracy of repeat measurements. Leakage current is a current through the detector system that is not due to ion transport through the ion chamber 14. Leakage currents may be due to cables, connections, parasitic current in the components, moisture contamination of the amplifier circuit or other components, or any number of other factors. Thus, leakage current depends on a highly convoluted function of temperature, humidity, age of components, and any number of other factors. Because the ion current in an ion chamber is on the order of 10−12 A or less, leakage current may be a significant fraction of the total measured current, and any variation in the leakage current may significantly impact the accuracy of the measurements.
In a setup described above and shown in
There remains a continuing need for ion chambers that provide more reliable and accurate measurements of high-energy radiation.
In one aspect, embodiments disclosed herein relate to a method for measuring high-energy radiation flux, comprising applying a low voltage to electrodes in an ion chamber filled with a fluid capable of forming ions through the interaction of the fluid with high energy radiation; measuring an ion current signal related to an ion current induced by the low voltage; determining a leakage current; determining a gain; determining a magnitude of the high-energy radiation flux based on the ion current signal, gain, and leakage current; and outputting the result of the magnitude of the high-energy radiation flux.
In another aspect, embodiments disclosed herein relate to method for measuring high-energy radiation flux, comprising applying a low voltage to electrodes in an ion chamber filled with a fluid capable of forming ions through the interaction of the fluid with high energy radiation; measuring a ion current signal related to an ion current induced by the low voltage; applying the low voltage at a negative polarity across the electrodes; measuring a negative ion current signal related to ion currents induced by the low voltage at the negative polarity; determining a magnitude of the high-energy radiation flux based on the positive and negative ion current signals; outputting the result of the magnitude of the high-energy radiation flux; applying a time varying voltage across the electrodes such that the ion chamber conducts a current small enough that ion transport does not occur; and determining a gain.
In another aspect, embodiments disclosed herein relate to method for measuring high-energy radiation flux, comprising applying a first voltage to electrodes in an ion chamber filled with a fluid capable of forming charged ions by high energy radiation, measuring a ion current signal related to an ion current induced by the first voltage; determining an optimal voltage by lowering the first voltage to a low voltage; measuring an optimal ion current signal related to an ion current induced by the optimal voltage; determining a magnitude of the high-energy radiation flux based on the optimal ion current signal, gain, and leakage current; and outputting the result of the magnitude of the high-energy radiation flux.
In another aspect, embodiments disclosed herein relate to a system for measuring high-energy radiation flux, comprising an ion chamber comprising a material ionizable by the high-energy radiation flux and two electrodes disposed in the ion chamber; and a circuit connected to the two electrodes, wherein the circuit is configured to provide low voltage to the two electrodes and measure an electrical current across the two electrodes, wherein the circuit is configured to determine a magnitude of the high-energy radiation flux based on the electrical current.
Embodiments of the present disclosure relate to ion chambers for measuring high-energy radiation. “High-energy radiation” as used herein refers to neutrons, X-rays, gamma rays, α-particles, and β-particles. For clarity of illustration, the following description uses an ion chamber for neutron detection as an example; however, embodiments of the present disclosure are not so limited. An ion chamber for neutron counting in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure may be operated at low voltage in a pulse mode, as well as at low voltage in a continuous mode.
According to the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), low voltage circuits are those operating in a range of 50-1000 V AC or 120-1500 V DC and extra low voltage circuits are those operating with a voltage less than 50 V AC or less than 120 V DC. In this disclosure, the term “low voltage” is defined to include voltages that may fall in the range of either “low voltage” or “extra low voltage” as defined by the IEC. For example, in certain embodiments, low voltage may refer to any voltage less than 1000, while in certain embodiments low voltage may refer to voltages in the range of about 5V to about 20V.
As shown in
When a He-3 atom absorbs (captures) a thermal neutron, a nuclear reaction occurs as follows:
23He+01n→13H+11p (1)
This nuclear reaction produces tritium (H-3) and a proton. He-3 and H-3 are isotopes of helium and hydrogen, respectively. This reaction also releases energy of approximately 764 keV (i.e., Q-value=764 keV), and, therefore, the tritium and the proton are produced with high kinetic energy. These fast-moving particles travel through the gas, ionizing some of the remaining He-3 atoms and thus creating an equal number of positive and negative ions. The positive and negative ions serve as charge carriers in the gas, which is otherwise an insulator.
When a voltage is applied across the electrodes 15, 16 in the ion chamber 14, an electric field is created in the space between the electrodes. The ions move in response to this electric field with the positive and negative ions pulled in opposite directions toward opposite electrodes. The ions are eventually neutralized at electrodes 15, 16 resulting in an ion current that is directly proportional to the number of ions transferred to the electrodes. Such an ion current may be measured by the electronics module 17. The magnitude of this ion current is directly proportional to the number of ions transferred to the electrodes. The number of ions transferred is in turn proportional to the thermal neutron flux. Therefore, the ion current measured by the electronics module 17 may be used to derive the magnitude of the thermal neutron flux through ion chamber 14.
In theory, any current may be measured using a conventional ion chamber shown in
The positive and negative ions generated in the ion chamber may also collide and then recombine to form a neutral species. This recombination competes with ion transport to the electrodes, and, thus, reduces the measurable magnitudes of the ion currents. In the absence of an applied voltage across the electrodes, there will be no ion transport and the positive and negative ions will eventually recombine. When a voltage is applied across the electrodes 15, 16, the positive and negative ions are pulled in the opposite directions. If the voltage applied across the electrodes 15, 16 is small, the positive and negative ions travel slowly to the electrodes, resulting in more recombination. If the voltage applied across the electrodes 15, 16 is large, the ions travel quickly to the electrodes, resulting in less recombination. Thus, the voltage applied to the ion chamber has a direct effect on the magnitude of the measurable ion current.
However, some gases (such as BF3) that may be used in ion chambers for neutron analyzers, do not have this flat region of saturation. Rather, the I-V characteristic curve rises continuously with increasing voltage as shown in
As stated above, the applied high voltage results in a relatively large ion current in accordance with the I-V characteristic curve shown in
The rise in noise originates from the fact that the electrodes of the ion chamber form a capacitor with a capacitance C (as large as 10 pF in some designs). It is well known that a time varying voltage applied to a capacitor will produce a current that equals the time varying voltage multiplied by the capacitance, i.e., I=C dV/dt. Accordingly, noise in the applied voltage will lead to corresponding current noise through the ion chamber and the amplitude of this current noise is directly proportional to voltage noise multiplied by the chamber capacitance. It is also common for the voltage noise of any power supply to increase with higher output voltage. Therefore, due to the capacitative action of the chamber electrodes, a higher applied voltage produces a larger ion current noise.
In addition, in an industrial environment, the capacitance of the chamber itself may change in time due to vibrations of the electrodes because C is inversely proportional to the distance d between the electrodes (C∝1/d). Consequently, even with a perfectly stable applied voltage, any vibration of the chamber could potentially create a time varying capacitance and, thus, additional current noise that is proportional to the applied voltage according to the relation I=dC/dt V.
One embodiment of the present disclosure relates to a method for operating an ionization chamber at a low applied voltage V0 in the range of about 5V to about 20V.
In accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, the circuit shown in
In accordance with a method of the present disclosure, the magnitude of the ion transport voltage is optimized. First, an ion transport current signal caused by an ion transport high voltage applied to the ion chamber electrodes is determined. An example of an ion transport current signal caused by a ion transport high voltage is shown in
The optimum range of ion transport voltages may be determined by considering the trade-off between a large average value of the ion transport current signal caused by the ion transport voltage (e.g., 4.23 pA in
To reduce noise, the ion transport voltage cannot be reduced indefinitely because eventually, the average ion current transport signal is too small to be reliably measured. Likewise, the usable average ion transport current cannot be increased indefinitely by increasing the ion transport voltage because at high voltages, the ion transport current signal will be so noisy as to negatively affect its reliable measurement. Thus, to optimize the ion transport voltage, one must consider the tradeoff between low noise and large average ion current signals.
Those having ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the precise values of the minimum optimal voltage, maximum optimum voltages, and optimal ion transport voltage depends on many variables including, for example, electrode design, operational environment (temperature, humidity, vibration, etc.), and the specific gas used in the detector and, therefore, the values for the minimum and maximum optimum voltage not limited to the exact values discussed above.
In accordance with a method of the present disclosure, the ion transport voltage (i.e., the potential applied across the electrodes in the ion chamber) is applied, allowed to stabilize for a selected duration, and then turned off, as shown in
Once the ion current measurement is complete (or after the selected duration), the voltage supplied to the electrodes in the ion chamber is turned off, which results in voltage decay in period 44. The voltage eventually decays to zero. The rate of this decay is determined by the RC time constant of the circuitry. The voltage is kept off for the time period 45, during which no signal from ion transport should be detectable.
Another measurement may be taken during period 45 corresponding to the leakage current. The difference between the measurements obtained in periods 43 and 45 may be used to derive the desired measurement—the current due only to ion transport and thus directly related to neutron flux through the ion chamber.
The leakage current may be measured for every measurement cycle such that the leakage current reference is only seconds or fractions of a second old. Temperature, humidity, and long term drift effects operate on much longer time scales, and, thus, remain substantially constant between measurements. Accordingly, these slowly changing effects are cancelled out in the difference measurements. Because the leakage currents may be on the same order of magnitude as the ion transport currents, subtracting the leakage currents from the raw measurements may provide a dramatic improvement to the repeatability and accuracy of the ion current measurements.
Some methods of the present disclosure for ion transport measurements are illustrated as a flow chart 50 in
In accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure, the gain of the amplifier in the circuit may also be measured and calibrated. To do this, a very small voltage ramp (or other characteristic non-DC pulse) is applied to the ion chamber, during period 46. This voltage is much too small to drive ion transport, but the ion chamber will act as a capacitor and thus there will be a small current. As long as the capacitance of the ion chamber does not change (given that the geometry is fixed and the gas is inert, changes are unlikely), the input to the amplifier will be the leakage current (which is measured as described above) plus the calibration current (which is known). Thus, the gain may be easily computed and adjusted so that the measurements to be compared are obtained with the same gain. Alternatively, the gain thus obtained may be used to calibrate (adjust) the ion current measurements so that they are of the same gain before a difference between two measurements is obtained.
This method is illustrated as method D in
Some embodiments of the present disclosure use a simpler approach, which does not measure leakage currents (i.e., skipping period 45 in
When the magnitude of the signal current (ion transport current) equals that of the reference current, the difference is zero, and thus any drift in gain is irrelevant. However, when there is a substantial difference between the magnitudes of the signal and reference currents, gain drift may result in errors. Thus, this method may be less accurate than the methods described above. However, as noted above, the gain may be separately calibrated from the signals measured during period 46 and used to improve the accuracy of the ion transport measurements, if so desired.
A method corresponding to this approach is illustrated as method C in
In all embodiments described above (e.g., methods B, C, and D in
The flow chart 50 in
In order to understand the additional advantages of a pulse mode operation, it is necessary to consider the reaction kinetics of the system. As an example, for an ion chamber filled with He-3, under normal conditions, a vast majority of the gas atoms in the ion chamber are unionized He-3. Thus, the concentration of the He-3 gas remains substantially constant, and from Equation (1), the rate of ion production depends linearly on only the neutron flux.
As noted above, ions are consumed by two independent mechanisms—ion current flow (ion transport to the electrodes) and recombination. When an electric field is applied across the ion chamber, the ions move in response to the electric field with the positive and negative ions pulled in opposite directions toward opposite electrodes. The ions are eventually neutralized at the electrodes resulting in an ion current. When the potential is held constant, the rate of ion consumption is linearly dependent on (first order in) the ion concentration. When no electric field is applied, the ion consumption term due to neutralization at the electrodes goes to zero.
In order for an ion to be neutralized in the gas (recombination) rather than at the electrode, it must collide with an ion having an opposite charge. The probability of such collision depends on the concentrations of the positive ions and the negative ions. Therefore, the recombination reaction is subject to the second order kinetics, one order each on the concentrations of the positive ions and the negative ions. Accordingly, ion recombination is insignificant when the ion concentrations are low, and it will become significant when the ion concentrations are high.
When the concentration of ions is small, the ion consumption term with the first order kinetics (i.e., current flow to the electrodes) dominates, and the ion consumption term with the second order kinetics (i.e., recombination) is relatively small. If the electric field is applied continuously (as in the constant voltage operation), the ion chamber comes to an equilibrium, in which the rate of ion consumption by the current flow accounts for a large fraction of the ions produced by neutron flux, and the rate of consumption by recombination is relatively small.
If the electric field is applied intermittently (e.g., in a pulse mode), the above described equilibrium does not occur. When the field is turned off, ion consumption by current flow stops. Ion concentration increases because ion production by neutron interactions continues, but ion consumption by recombination is insignificant and will remain insignificant until ion concentrations increase substantially. Eventually an equilibrium will be reached when ion consumption by recombination equals ion production by neutron flux, but this will take a relatively long time.
When the ion transport voltage is turned on, initial current flow will be high (relative to current flow with a continuous field) because ion concentration will have had time to build up. The larger current will be easier to measure, and the leakage current will be relatively small. Thus, the simple method A in
At the first glance, it may seem possible to make the ion current very large in a pulse mode by making the duty cycle (the fraction of time when the electric field is applied to the total cycle time) very small, but this is not the case for the following reasons. First, there is a practical minimum time required to measure the ion current. Second, some ions will be consumed by ion transport before the voltage stabilizes. Third, more ions are lost to recombination when ion concentration increases. Finally, the statistical fluctuation in measurement is increased since the total number of ions collected during a measurement is reduced. Thus, a cycle time and duty cycle are preferably selected such that the statistical uncertainty (due to the physics of neutron production) equals the measurement uncertainty (due to the limitations of the electronics). This will allow for minimum uncertainty of measurement.
The above description illustrates embodiments of the present disclosure as applied to ion chambers designed to detect neutrons. However, as noted above, embodiments of the present disclosure are not limited to neutron detection. Instead, a pulse mode operation in accordance with embodiments of the present disclosure is also applicable to ion chambers that are designed to detect other forms of high-energy radiation, such as gamma rays, X-rays, α-particles and β-particles.
For example, the high energy photons (or electromagnetic waves) from, for example, X-ray or gamma ray, may pass through the ion chamber wall (or window) and be absorbed by or interact with (or Compton scattered from) electrons in the gas molecules, producing high energy electrons. The resultant high-energy electrons would then form multiple ions by collision with electrons in other gas molecules. The net result is the generation of ions at a rate proportional to the high energy photon (or electromagnetic wave) flux. Once the ions are generated, other aspects of the operation of the device are the same as described above.
In accordance with another method of the present disclosure, the ion transport voltage is a low voltage with an alternating polarity. A positive low voltage is applied and allowed to stabilize. A positive ion current is measured. As with previously described embodiments, this measurement will include a leakage current. The voltage polarity is then reversed and allowed to stabilize at the negative transport low voltage. Any ions in the ion chamber will now be accelerated in an opposite direction. A negative ion current is measured, which will include a leakage current.
The leakage current is primarily due to the characteristics of the semiconductor components. It does not depend on the amplitude or the polarity of the voltage. Thus, the leakage current will add to the ion current measured in one phase and it will subtract an approximately equal but opposite amount from the ion current measurement in the other phase. By computing the average (i.e., the arithmetic mean) absolute value of the ion current measurements from each phase, the leakage current component of the measurements will be eliminated. The resulting value may represent only the current due to ion transport in the ion chamber.
In some embodiments, the computations of the average may be done for every measurement cycle. In such a case, the leakage current references will be only a small fraction of a second old. In addition, temperature and long-term aging effects operate on larger scales and will likewise be removed from the measurement.
The voltage for an alternating low voltage may have any form that is known in the art or later devised. For example,
The next period is the voltage reversal period 64. The polarity of the applied low voltage is reversed, and the voltage 61 drops rapidly and stabilizes at the negative voltage. In the negative ion current measurement period 65, the ion current is again measured. As with the positive ion current measurement 63, the negative ion current measurement will include the leakage current. The direction of the ion transport current will be in the opposite direction, but the leakage current will be in the same direction as it was for the positive ion current measurement. The leakage current may be cancelled out by computing the average of the absolute values for the positive and negative ion current measurements.
In addition, the gain of the amplifier may be measured and calibrated, as described above, even using an alternating voltage. In some embodiments, the gain measurement and calibration may not be performed with every alternating cycle. Instead, it may be performed at selected intervals.
Determining the flux 75 may include calculating the leakage free ion current measurement. This may include taking the mean of the absolute values of the positive and negative measurements. For example, the following equation shows one possible calculation for determining the leakage free ion current (VIC) based on the positive measurement (V+) and the negative measurement (V−):
Other computations and equations may be devised by skilled artisans without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. For example, in some embodiments, the negative measurement (V−) may be inverted (i.e., made positive) and added to the positive measurement (V+). Because the leakage current adds to one and subtracts from the other, the resulting value will represent the ion current (VIC) without the leakage current effects.
An additional embodiment of the present disclosure makes uses low voltage resonance methods. Using a selected frequency and/or amplitude for the alternating voltage, only a fraction of the ions in the ion chamber will be consumed during a given period. For example, by reducing the amplitude of the alternating voltage, the fraction of ions that do not reach an electrode may be increased. These ions will accelerate in one direction (e.g., under the positive drive voltage), and when the polarity is reversed, these ions will accelerate in the opposite direction (e.g., under the negative drive voltage). These ions will essentially travel back and forth between the electrodes and will only be subject to consumption by recombination. The response time of the detector will be increased by the amount of time that is required for the ion chamber to reach equilibrium in this resonance mode. However, because this happens in a fraction of a second, it is not a significant problem with respect to neutron measurements. Because the total number of ions increases in this resonance mode, the total measured current for a given neutron flux will also increase when the ion transport voltage is turned on. This will provide a higher magnitude signal for a give neutron flux.
Advantageously, embodiments of the present disclosure may be used to provide methods and apparatuses for more accurate measurements of high-energy radiation using low voltage operation that results in higher signal-to-noise when compared to traditional high voltage detectors. In addition, without constantly loading the system with a high voltage, the device may not wear out as quickly and less energy may be consumed.
Advantageously, embodiments of the present disclosure may also be used to provide methods and apparatuses for more accurate measurements of high-energy radiation using low voltage pulse mode operation that can produce stronger signals than a constant low voltage operation while having higher signal-to-noise than a high voltage pulse mode operation.
Also advantageously, embodiments of the present disclosure may be used to provide methods and apparatuses using low voltage resonance methods. This may provide a higher magnitude signal for a given neutron flux than a constant low voltage operation while having higher signal-to-noise than a high voltage resonance mode operation.
Advantageously, embodiments of the present disclosure can be used to provide methods that may be used to derive the ion transport currents from the pulse mode operation. In addition, such methods may allow for ease in correcting for leakage currents or calibrating the gain of the system.
Advantageously, embodiments of the present disclosure may be used to provide methods that provide convenient ways to control quality and/or monitor leakage currents and/or system gains.
While the present disclosure has been described with respect to a limited number of embodiments, those skilled in the art, having benefit of this disclosure, will appreciate that other embodiments can be devised which do not depart from the scope of the present disclosure as disclosed herein. Accordingly, the scope of the present disclosure should be limited only by the attached claims.
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