PRINTHEAD NOZZLE ARRANGEMENT HAVING INTERLEAVED HEATER ELEMENTS

Abstract

A printhead nozzle arrangement is provided having a wafer defining a chamber for holding ejection fluid, an ejection port supported by a plurality of bridge members which extend from the ejection port to sides of the chamber, and a plurality of heater elements interleaved between the bridge members for causing ejection of fluid held in the chamber through the ejection port.

Description

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

Not applicable.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the field of fluid ejection and, in particular, discloses a fluid ejection chip.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Many different types of printing mechanisms have been invented, a large number of which are presently in use. The known forms of printers have a variety of methods for marking the print media with a relevant marking media. Commonly used forms of printing include offset printing, laser printing and copying devices, dot matrix type impact printers, thermal paper printers, film recorders, thermal wax printers, dye sublimation printers and ink jet printers both of the drop on demand and continuous flow type. Each type of printer has its own advantages and problems when considering cost, speed, quality, reliability, simplicity of construction and operation etc.

In recent years the field of ink jet printing, wherein each individual pixel of ink is derived from one or more ink nozzles, has become increasingly popular primarily due to its inexpensive and versatile nature.

Many different techniques of ink jet printing have been invented. For a survey of the field, reference is made to an article by J Moore, “Non-Impact Printing: Introduction and Historical Perspective”, Output Hard Copy Devices, Editors R Dubeck and S Sherr, pages 207-220 (1988).

Ink Jet printers themselves come in many different forms. The utilization of a continuous stream of ink in ink jet printing appears to date back to at least 1929 wherein U.S. Pat. No. 1,941,001 by Hansell discloses a simple form of continuous stream electro-static ink jet printing.

U.S. Pat. No. 3,596,275 by Sweet also discloses a process of a continuous ink jet printing including a step wherein the ink jet stream is modulated by a high frequency electro-static field so as to cause drop separation. This technique is still utilized by several manufacturers including Elmjet and Scitex (see also U.S. Pat. No. 3,373,437 by Sweet et al).

Piezoelectric ink jet printers are also one form of commonly utilized ink jet printing device. Piezoelectric systems are disclosed by Kyser et. al. in U.S. Pat. No. 3,946,398 (1970) which utilizes a diaphragm mode of operation, by Zolten in U.S. Pat. No. 3,683,212 (1970) which discloses a squeeze mode form of operation of a piezoelectric crystal, Stemme in U.S. Pat. No. 3,747,120 (1972) which discloses a bend mode of piezoelectric operation, Howkins in U.S. Pat. No. 4,459,601 which discloses a piezoelectric push mode actuation of the ink jet stream and Fischbeck in U.S. Pat. No. 4,584,590 which discloses a shear mode type of piezoelectric transducer element.

Recently, thermal ink jet printing has become an extremely popular form of ink jet printing. The ink jet printing techniques include those disclosed by Endo et al in GB 2007162 (1979) and Vaught et al in U.S. Pat. No. 4,490,728. Both the aforementioned references disclose ink jet printing techniques which rely on the activation of an electrothermal actuator which results in the creation of a bubble in a constricted space, such as a nozzle, which thereby causes the ejection of ink from an aperture connected to the confined space onto a relevant print media. Manufacturers such as Canon and Hewlett Packard manufacture printing devices utilizing the electro-thermal actuator.

As can be seen from the foregoing, many different types of printing technologies are available. Ideally, a printing technology should have a number of desirable attributes. These include inexpensive construction and operation, high-speed operation, safe and continuous long-term operation etc. Each technology may have its own advantages and disadvantages in the areas of cost, speed, quality, reliability, power usage, simplicity of construction and operation, durability and consumables.

Applicant has developed a substantial amount of technology in the field of micro-electromechanical inkjet printing. The parent application is indeed directed to a particular aspect in this field. In this application, the Applicant has applied the technology to the more general field of fluid ejection.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a nozzle arrangement for an ink jet printhead, the arrangement comprising a nozzle chamber defined in a wafer substrate for the storage of ink to be ejected; an ink ejection port having a rim formed on one wall of the chamber; and a series of actuators attached to the wafer substrate, and forming a portion of the wall of the nozzle chamber adjacent the rim, the actuator paddles further being actuated in unison so as to eject ink from the nozzle chamber via the ink ejection nozzle.

The actuators can include a surface which bends inwards away from the center of the nozzle chamber upon actuation. The actuators are preferably actuated by means of a thermal actuator device. The thermal actuator device may comprise a conductive resistive heating element encased within a material having a high coefficient of thermal expansion. The element can be serpentine to allow for substantially unhindered expansion of the material. The actuators are preferably arranged radially around the nozzle rim.

The actuators can form a membrane between the nozzle chamber and an external atmosphere of the arrangement and the actuators bend away from the external atmosphere to cause an increase in pressure within the nozzle chamber thereby initiating a consequential ejection of ink from the nozzle chamber. The actuators can bend away from a central axis of the nozzle chamber.

The nozzle arrangement can be formed on the wafer substrate utilizing micro-electro mechanical techniques and further can comprise an ink supply channel in communication with the nozzle chamber. The ink supply channel may be etched through the wafer. The nozzle arrangement may include a series of struts which support the nozzle rim.

The arrangement can be formed adjacent to neighbouring arrangements so as to form a pagewidth printhead.

In this application, the invention extends to a fluid ejection chip that comprises

a substrate; and

a plurality of nozzle arrangements positioned on the substrate, each nozzle arrangement comprising

• • a nozzle chamber defining structure which defines a nozzle chamber and which includes a wall in which a fluid ejection port is defined; and
  • at least one actuator for ejecting fluid from the nozzle chamber through the fluid ejection port, the, or each, actuator being displaceable with respect to the substrate on receipt of an electrical signal, wherein
  • the, or each, actuator is formed in said wall of the nozzle chamber defining structure, so that displacement of the, or each, actuator results in a change in volume of the nozzle chamber so that fluid is ejected from the fluid ejection port.

Each nozzle arrangement may include a plurality of actuators, each actuator including an actuating portion and a paddle positioned on the actuating portion, the actuating portion being anchored to the substrate and being displaceable on receipt of an electrical signal to displace the paddle, in turn, the paddles and the wall being substantially coplanar and the actuating portions being configured so that, upon receipt of said electrical signal, the actuating portions displace the paddles into the nozzle chamber to reduce a volume of the nozzle chamber, thereby ejecting fluid from the fluid ejection port.

A periphery of each paddle may be shaped to define a fluidic seal when the nozzle chamber is filled with fluid.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Notwithstanding any other forms which may fall within the scope of the present invention, preferred forms of the invention will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying drawings in which:

FIGS. 1-3 are schematic sectional views illustrating the operational principles of the preferred embodiment;

FIG. 4( a) and FIG. 4(b) are again schematic sections illustrating the operational principles of the thermal actuator device;

FIG. 5 is a side perspective view, partly in section, of a single nozzle arrangement constructed in accordance with the preferred embodiments;

FIGS. 6-13 are side perspective views, partly in section, illustrating the manufacturing steps of the preferred embodiments;

FIG. 14 illustrates an array of ink jet nozzles formed in accordance with the manufacturing procedures of the preferred embodiment;

FIG. 15 provides a legend of the materials indicated in FIGS. 16 to 23; and

FIG. 16 to FIG. 23 illustrate sectional views of the manufacturing steps in one form of construction of a nozzle arrangement in accordance with the invention.

DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED AND OTHER EMBODIMENTS

In the following description, reference is made to the ejection of ink for application to ink jet printing. However, it will readily be appreciated that the present application can be applied to any situation where fluid ejection is required.

In the preferred embodiment, ink is ejected out of a nozzle chamber via an ink ejection port using a series of radially positioned thermal actuator devices that are arranged about the ink ejection port and are activated to pressurize the ink within the nozzle chamber thereby causing the ejection of ink through the ejection port.

Turning now to FIGS. 1, 2 and 3, there is illustrated the basic operational principles of the preferred embodiment. FIG. 1 illustrates a single nozzle arrangement 1 in its quiescent state. The arrangement 1 includes a nozzle chamber 2 which is normally filled with ink so as to form a meniscus 3 in an ink ejection port 4. The nozzle chamber 2 is formed within a wafer 5. The nozzle chamber 2 is supplied with ink via an ink supply channel 6 which is etched through the wafer 5 with a highly isotropic plasma etching system. A suitable etcher can be the Advance Silicon Etch (ASE) system available from Surface Technology Systems of the United Kingdom.

A top of the nozzle arrangement 1 includes a series of radially positioned actuators 8, 9. These actuators comprise a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) layer and an internal serpentine copper core 17. Upon heating of the copper core 17, the surrounding PTFE expands rapidly resulting in a generally downward movement of the actuators 8, 9. Hence, when it is desired to eject ink from the ink ejection port 4, a current is passed through the actuators 8, 9 which results in them bending generally downwards as illustrated in FIG. 2. The downward bending movement of the actuators 8, 9 results in a substantial increase in pressure within the nozzle chamber 2. The increase in pressure in the nozzle chamber 2 results in an expansion of the meniscus 3 as illustrated in FIG. 2.

The actuators 8, 9 are activated only briefly and subsequently deactivated. Consequently, the situation is as illustrated in FIG. 3 with the actuators 8, 9 returning to their original positions. This results in a general inflow of ink back into the nozzle chamber 2 and a necking and breaking of the meniscus 3 resulting in the ejection of a drop 12. The necking and breaking of the meniscus 3 is a consequence of the forward momentum of the ink associated with drop 12 and the backward pressure experienced as a result of the return of the actuators 8, 9 to their original positions. The return of the actuators 8,9 also results in a general inflow of ink from the channel 6 as a result of surface tension effects and, eventually, the state returns to the quiescent position as illustrated in FIG. 1.

FIGS. 4( a) and 4(b) illustrate the principle of operation of the thermal actuator. The thermal actuator is preferably constructed from a material 14 having a high coefficient of thermal expansion. Embedded within the material 14 are a series of heater elements 15 which can be a series of conductive elements designed to carry a current. The conductive elements 15 are heated by passing a current through the elements 15 with the heating resulting in a general increase in temperature in the area around the heating elements 15. The position of the elements 15 is such that uneven heating of the material 14 occurs. The uneven increase in temperature causes a corresponding uneven expansion of the material 14. Hence, as illustrated in FIG. 4(b), the PTFE is bent generally in the direction shown.

In FIG. 5, there is illustrated a side perspective view of one embodiment of a nozzle arrangement constructed in accordance with the principles previously outlined. The nozzle chamber 2 is formed with an isotropic surface etch of the wafer 5. The wafer 5 can include a CMOS layer including all the required power and drive circuits. Further, the actuators 8, 9 each have a leaf or petal formation which extends towards a nozzle rim 28 defining the ejection port 4. The normally inner end of each leaf or petal formation is displaceable with respect to the nozzle rim 28. Each activator 8, 9 has an internal copper core 17 defining the element 15. The core 17 winds in a serpentine manner to provide for substantially unhindered expansion of the actuators 8, 9. The operation of the actuators 8, 9 is as illustrated in FIG. 4(a) and FIG. 4(b) such that, upon activation, the actuators 8 bend as previously described resulting in a displacement of each petal formation away from the nozzle rim 28 and into the nozzle chamber 2. The ink supply channel 6 can be created via a deep silicon back edge of the wafer 5 utilizing a plasma etcher or the like. The copper or aluminum core 17 can provide a complete circuit. A central arm 18 which can include both metal and PTFE portions provides the main structural support for the actuators 8, 9.

Turning now to FIG. 6 to FIG. 13, one form of manufacture of the nozzle arrangement 1 in accordance with the principles of the preferred embodiment is shown. The nozzle arrangement 1 is preferably manufactured using micro-electromechanical (MEMS) techniques and can include the following construction techniques:

As shown initially in FIG. 6, the initial processing starting material is a standard semi-conductor wafer 20 having a complete CMOS level 21 to a first level of metal. The first level of metal includes portions 22 which are utilized for providing power to the thermal actuators 8, 9.

The first step, as illustrated in FIG. 7, is to etch a nozzle region down to the silicon wafer 20 utilizing an appropriate mask.

Next, as illustrated in FIG. 8, a 2 μm layer of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is deposited and etched so as to define vias 24 for interconnecting multiple levels.

Next, as illustrated in FIG. 9, the second level metal layer is deposited, masked and etched to define a heater structure 25. The heater structure 25 includes via 26 interconnected with a lower aluminum layer.

Next, as illustrated in FIG. 10, a further 2 μm layer of PTFE is deposited and etched to the depth of 1 μm utilizing a nozzle rim mask to define the nozzle rim 28 in addition to ink flow guide rails 29 which generally restrain any wicking along the surface of the PTFE layer. The guide rails 29 surround small thin slots and, as such, surface tension effects are a lot higher around these slots which in turn results in minimal outflow of ink during operation.

Next, as illustrated in FIG. 11, the PTFE is etched utilizing a nozzle and actuator mask to define a port portion 30 and slots 31 and 32.

Next, as illustrated in FIG. 12, the wafer is crystallographically etched on a <111> plane utilizing a standard crystallographic etchant such as KOH. The etching forms a chamber 33, directly below the port portion 30.

In FIG. 13, the ink supply channel 34 can be etched from the back of the wafer utilizing a highly anisotropic etcher such as the STS etcher from Silicon Technology Systems of United Kingdom. An array of ink jet nozzles can be formed simultaneously with a portion of an array 36 being illustrated in FIG. 14. A portion of the printhead is formed simultaneously and diced by the STS etching process. The array 36 shown provides for four column printing with each separate column attached to a different color ink supply channel being supplied from the back of the wafer. Bond pads 37 provide for electrical control of the ejection mechanism.

In this manner, large pagewidth printheads can be fabricated so as to provide for a drop-on-demand ink ejection mechanism.

One form of detailed manufacturing process which can be used to fabricate monolithic ink jet printheads operating in accordance with the principles taught by the present embodiment can proceed utilizing the following steps:

1. Using a double-sided polished wafer 60, complete a 0.5 micron, one poly, 2 metal CMOS process 61. This step is shown in FIG. 16. For clarity, these diagrams may not be to scale, and may not represent a cross section though any single plane of the nozzle. FIG. 15 is a key to representations of various materials in these manufacturing diagrams, and those of other cross-referenced ink jet configurations.

2. Etch the CMOS oxide layers down to silicon or second level metal using Mask 1. This mask defines the nozzle cavity and the edge of the chips. This step is shown in FIG. 16.

3. Deposit a thin layer (not shown) of a hydrophilic polymer, and treat the surface of this polymer for PTFE adherence.

4. Deposit 1.5 microns of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 62.

5. Etch the PTFE and CMOS oxide layers to second level metal using Mask 2. This mask defines the contact vias for the heater electrodes. This step is shown in FIG. 17.

6. Deposit and pattern 0.5 microns of gold 63 using a lift-off process using Mask 3. This mask defines the heater pattern. This step is shown in FIG. 18.

7. Deposit 1.5 microns of PTFE 64.

8. Etch 1 micron of PTFE using Mask 4. This mask defines the nozzle rim 65 and the rim at the edge 66 of the nozzle chamber. This step is shown in FIG. 19.

9. Etch both layers of PTFE and the thin hydrophilic layer down to silicon using Mask 5. This mask defines a gap 67 at inner edges of the actuators, and the edge of the chips. It also forms the mask for a subsequent crystallographic etch. This step is shown in FIG. 20.

10. Crystallographically etch the exposed silicon using KOH. This etch stops on <111>crystallographic planes 68, forming an inverted square pyramid with sidewall angles of 54.74 degrees. This step is shown in FIG. 21.

11. Back-etch through the silicon wafer (with, for example, an ASE Advanced Silicon Etcher from Surface Technology Systems) using Mask 6. This mask defines the ink inlets 69 which are etched through the wafer. The wafer is also diced by this etch. This step is shown in FIG. 22.

12. Mount the printheads in their packaging, which may be a molded plastic former incorporating ink channels which supply the appropriate color ink to the ink inlets 69 at the back of the wafer.

13. Connect the printheads to their interconnect systems. For a low profile connection with minimum disruption of airflow, TAB may be used. Wire bonding may also be used if the printer is to be operated with sufficient clearance to the paper.

14. Fill the completed print heads with ink 70 and test them. A filled nozzle is shown in FIG. 23.

The presently disclosed ink jet printing technology is potentially suited to a wide range of printing systems including: color and monochrome office printers, short run digital printers, high speed digital printers, offset press supplemental printers, low cost scanning printers high speed pagewidth printers, notebook computers with inbuilt pagewidth printers, portable color and monochrome printers, color and monochrome copiers, color and monochrome facsimile machines, combined printer, facsimile and copying machines, label printers, large format plotters, photograph copiers, printers for digital photographic “minilabs”, video printers, PHOTO CD (PHOTO CD is a registered trade mark of the Eastman Kodak Company) printers, portable printers for PDAs, wallpaper printers, indoor sign printers, billboard printers, fabric printers, camera printers and fault tolerant commercial printer arrays.

It would be appreciated by a person skilled in the art that numerous variations and/or modifications may be made to the present invention as shown in the specific embodiments without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention as broadly described. The present embodiments are, therefore, to be considered in all respects to be illustrative and not restrictive.

Ink Jet Technologies

The embodiments of the invention use an ink jet printer type device. Of course many different devices could be used. However, presently popular ink jet printing technologies are unlikely to be suitable.

The most significant problem with thermal ink jet is power consumption. This is approximately 100 times that required for high speed, and stems from the energy-inefficient means of drop ejection. This involves the rapid boiling of water to produce a vapor bubble which expels the ink. Water has a very high heat capacity, and must be superheated in thermal ink jet applications. This leads to an efficiency of around 0.02%, from electricity input to drop momentum (and increased surface area) out.

The most significant problem with piezoelectric ink jet is size and cost. Piezoelectric crystals have a very small deflection at reasonable drive voltages, and therefore require a large area for each nozzle. Also, each piezoelectric actuator must be connected to its drive circuit on a separate substrate. This is not a significant problem at the current limit of around 300 nozzles per printhead, but is a major impediment to the fabrication of pagewidth printheads with 19,200 nozzles.

Ideally, the ink jet technologies used meet the stringent requirements of in-camera digital color printing and other high quality, high speed, low cost printing applications. To meet the requirements of digital photography, new ink jet technologies have been created. The target features include:

low power (less than 10 Watts)

High-resolution capability (1,600 dpi or more)

photographic quality output

low manufacturing cost

small size (pagewidth times minimum cross section)

high speed (<2 seconds per page).

All of these features can be met or exceeded by the ink jet systems described below with differing levels of difficulty. Forty-five different ink jet technologies have been developed by the Assignee to give a wide range of choices for high volume manufacture. These technologies form part of separate applications assigned to the present Assignee as set out in the table below under the heading Cross References to Related Applications.

The ink jet designs shown here are suitable for a wide range of digital printing systems, from battery powered one-time use digital cameras, through to desktop and network printers, and through to commercial printing systems.

For ease of manufacture using standard process equipment, the printhead is designed to be a monolithic 0.5-micron CMOS chip with MEMS post processing. For color photographic applications, the printhead is 100 mm long, with a width which depends upon the ink jet type. The smallest printhead designed is IJ38, which is 0.35 mm wide, giving a chip area of 35 square mm. The printheads each contain 19,200 nozzles plus data and control circuitry.

Ink is supplied to the back of the printhead by injection molded plastic ink channels. The molding requires 50 micron features, which can be created using a lithographically micromachined insert in a standard injection molding tool Ink flows through holes etched through the wafer to the nozzle chambers fabricated on the front surface of the wafer. The printhead is connected to the camera circuitry by tape automated bonding.

Tables of Drop-on-Demand Ink Jets

Eleven important characteristics of the fundamental operation of individual ink jet nozzles have been identified. These characteristics are largely orthogonal, and so can be elucidated as an eleven dimensional matrix. Most of the eleven axes of this matrix include entries developed by the present assignee.

The following tables form the axes of an eleven dimensional table of ink jet types.

Actuator mechanism (18 types)

Basic operation mode (7 types)

Auxiliary mechanism (8 types)

Actuator amplification or modification method (17 types)

Actuator motion (19 types)

Nozzle refill method (4 types)

Method of restricting back-flow through inlet (10 types)

Nozzle clearing method (9 types)

Nozzle plate construction (9 types)

Drop ejection direction (5 types)

Ink type (7 types)

The complete eleven dimensional table represented by these axes contains 36.9 billion possible configurations of ink jet nozzle. While not all of the possible combinations result in a viable ink jet technology, many million configurations are viable. It is clearly impractical to elucidate all of the possible configurations. Instead, certain ink jet types have been investigated in detail. These are designated IJ01 to IJ45 above which matches the docket numbers in the table under the heading Cross References to Related Applications.

Other ink jet configurations can readily be derived from these forty-five examples by substituting alternative configurations along one or more of the 11 axes. Most of the IJ01 to IJ45 examples can be made into ink jet printheads with characteristics superior to any currently available ink jet technology.

Where there are prior art examples known to the inventor, one or more of these examples are listed in the examples column of the tables below. The IJ01 to IJ45 series are also listed in the examples column. In some cases, print technology may be listed more than once in a table, where it shares characteristics with more than one entry.

Suitable applications for the ink jet technologies include: Home printers, Office network printers, Short run digital printers, Commercial print systems, Fabric printers, Pocket printers, Internet WWW printers, Video printers, Medical imaging, Wide format printers, Notebook PC printers, Fax machines, Industrial printing systems, Photocopiers, Photographic minilabs etc.

The information associated with the aforementioned 11 dimensional matrix is set out in the following tables.

ACTUATOR MECHANISM (APPLIED ONLY TO SELECTED INK DROPS)
	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages	Examples
Thermal	An electrothermal	Large	High	Canon
bubble	heater heats the	force generated	power	Bubblejet 1979
	ink to above	Simple	Ink carrier	Endo et al GB
	boiling point,	construction	limited to water	patent 2,007,162
	transferring	No	Low	Xerox
	significant heat to	moving parts	efficiency	heater-in-pit
	the aqueous ink. A	Fast	High	1990 Hawkins et
	bubble nucleates	operation	temperatures	al U.S. Pat. No.
	and quickly forms,	Small chip	required	4,899,181
	expelling the ink.	area required for	High	Hewlett-
	The efficiency of	actuator	mechanical	Packard TIJ
	the process is low,		stress	1982 Vaught et
	with typically less		Unusual	al U.S. Pat. No.
	than 0.05% of the		materials	4,490,728
	electrical energy		required
	being transformed		Large
	into kinetic energy		drive transistors
	of the drop.		Cavitation
			causes actuator
			failure
			Kogation
			reduces bubble
			formation
			Large
			print heads are
			difficult to
			fabricate
Piezo-	A piezoelectric	Low	Very large	Kyser et al
electric	crystal such as	power	area required for	U.S. Pat. No. 3,946,398
	lead lanthanum	consumption	actuator	Zoltan
	zirconate (PZT) is	Many ink	Difficult	U.S. Pat. No. 3,683,212
	electrically	types can be	to integrate with	1973
	activated, and	used	electronics	Stemme U.S. Pat. No.
	either expands,	Fast	High	3,747,120
	shears, or bends to	operation	voltage drive	Epson
	apply pressure to	High	transistors	Stylus
	the ink, ejecting	efficiency	required	Tektronix
	drops.		Full	IJ04
			pagewidth print
			heads
			impractical due
			to actuator size
			Requires
			electrical poling
			in high field
			strengths during
			manufacture
Electro-	An electric field is	Low	Low	Seiko
strictive	used to activate	power	maximum strain	Epson, Usui et
	electrostriction in	consumption	(approx. 0.01%)	all JP 253401/96
	relaxor materials	Many ink	Large area	IJ04
	such as lead	types can be	required for
	lanthanum	used	actuator due to
	zirconate titanate	Low	low strain
	(PLZT) or lead	thermal	Response
	magnesium	expansion	speed is
	niobate (PMN).	Electric	marginal (~ 10 μs)
		field strength	High
		required	voltage drive
		(approx. 3.5 V/μm)	transistors
		can be	required
		generated	Full
		without	pagewidth print
		difficulty	heads
		Does not	impractical due
		require electrical	to actuator size
		poling
Ferro-	An electric field is	Low	Difficult	IJ04
electric	used to induce a	power	to integrate with
	phase transition	consumption	electronics
	between the	Many ink	Unusual
	antiferroelectric	types can be	materials such as
	(AFE) and	used	PLZSnT are
	ferroelectric (FE)	Fast	required
	phase. Perovskite	operation (<1 μs)	Actuators
	materials such as	Relatively	require a large
	tin modified lead	high longitudinal	area
	lanthanum	strain
	zirconate titanate	High
	(PLZSnT) exhibit	efficiency
	large strains of up	Electric
	to 1% associated	field strength of
	with the AFE to	around 3 V/μm
	FE phase	can be readily
	transition.	provided
Electro-	Conductive plates	Low	Difficult	IJ02, IJ04
static	are separated by a	power	to operate
plates	compressible or	consumption	electrostatic
	fluid dielectric	Many ink	devices in an
	(usually air). Upon	types can be	aqueous
	application of a	used	environment
	voltage, the plates	Fast	The
	attract each other	operation	electrostatic
	and displace ink,		actuator will
	causing drop		normally need to
	ejection. The		be separated
	conductive plates		from the ink
	may be in a comb		Very large
	or honeycomb		area required to
	structure, or		achieve high
	stacked to increase		forces
	the surface area		High
	and therefore the		voltage drive
	force.		transistors may
			be required
			Full
			pagewidth print
			heads are not
			competitive due
			to actuator size
Electro-	A strong electric	Low	High	1989 Saito
static pull	field is applied to	current	voltage required	et al, U.S. Pat. No.
on ink	the ink, whereupon	consumption	May be	4,799,068
	electrostatic	Low	damaged by	1989
	attraction	temperature	sparks due to air	Miura et al, U.S. Pat. No.
	accelerates the ink		breakdown	4,810,954
	towards the print		Required	Tone-jet
	medium.		field strength
			increases as the
			drop size
			decreases
			High
			voltage drive
			transistors
			required
			Electrostatic
			field attracts
			dust
Permanent	An electromagnet	Low	Complex	IJ07, IJ10
magnet	directly attracts a	power	fabrication
electro-	permanent magnet,	consumption	Permanent
magnetic	displacing ink and	Many ink	magnetic
	causing drop	types can be	material such as
	ejection. Rare	used	Neodymium Iron
	earth magnets with	Fast	Boron (NdFeB)
	a field strength	operation	required.
	around 1 Tesla can	High	High local
	be used. Examples	efficiency	currents required
	are: Samarium	Easy	Copper
	Cobalt (SaCo) and	extension from	metalization
	magnetic materials	single nozzles to	should be used
	in the neodymium	pagewidth print	for long
	iron boron family	heads	electromigration
	(NdFeB,		lifetime and low
	NdDyFeBNb,		resistivity
	NdDyFeB, etc)		Pigmented
			inks are usually
			infeasible
			Operating
			temperature
			limited to the
			Curie
			temperature
			(around 540 K)
Soft	A solenoid	Low	Complex	IJ01, IJ05,
magnetic	induced a	power	fabrication	IJ08, IJ10, IJ12,
core	magnetic field in a	consumption	Materials	IJ14, IJ15, IJ17
electro-	soft magnetic core	Many ink	not usually
magnetic	or yoke fabricated	types can be	present in a
	from a ferrous	used	CMOS fab such
	material such as	Fast	as NiFe,
	electroplated iron	operation	CoNiFe, or CoFe
	alloys such as	High	are required
	CoNiFe [1], CoFe,	efficiency	High local
	or NiFe alloys.	Easy	currents required
	Typically, the soft	extension from	Copper
	magnetic material	single nozzles to	metalization
	is in two parts,	pagewidth print	should be used
	which are	heads	for long
	normally held		electromigration
	apart by a spring.		lifetime and low
	When the solenoid		resistivity
	is actuated, the two		Electroplating
	parts attract,		is required
	displacing the ink.		High
			saturation flux
			density is
			required (2.0-2.1
			T is achievable
			with CoNiFe
			[1])
Lorenz	The Lorenz force	Low	Force acts	IJ06, IJ11,
force	acting on a current	power	as a twisting	IJ13, IJ16
	carrying wire in a	consumption	motion
	magnetic field is	Many ink	Typically,
	utilized.	types can be	only a quarter of
	This allows the	used	the solenoid
	magnetic field to	Fast	length provides
	be supplied	operation	force in a useful
	externally to the	High	direction
	print head, for	efficiency	High local
	example with rare	Easy	currents required
	earth permanent	extension from	Copper
	magnets.	single nozzles to	metalization
	Only the current	pagewidth print	should be used
	carrying wire need	heads	for long
	be fabricated on		electromigration
	the print head,		lifetime and low
	simplifying		resistivity
	materials		Pigmented
	requirements.		inks are usually
			infeasible
Magneto-	The actuator uses	Many ink	Force acts	Fischenbeck,
striction	the giant	types can be	as a twisting	U.S. Pat. No.
	magnetostrictive	used	motion	4,032,929
	effect of materials	Fast	Unusual	IJ25
	such as Terfenol-D	operation	materials such as
	(an alloy of	Easy	Terfenol-D are
	terbium,	extension from	required
	dysprosium and	single nozzles to	High local
	iron developed at	pagewidth print	currents required
	the Naval	heads	Copper
	Ordnance	High force	metalization
	Laboratory, hence	is available	should be used
	Ter-Fe-NOL). For		for long
	best efficiency, the		electromigration
	actuator should be		lifetime and low
	pre-stressed to		resistivity
	approx. 8 MPa.		Pre-
			stressing may be
			required
Surface	Ink under positive	Low	Requires	Silverbrook,
tension	pressure is held in	power	supplementary	EP 0771 658
reduction	a nozzle by surface	consumption	force to effect	A2 and related
	tension. The	Simple	drop separation	patent
	surface tension of	construction	Requires	applications
	the ink is reduced	No	special ink
	below the bubble	unusual	surfactants
	threshold, causing	materials	Speed may
	the ink to egress	required in	be limited by
	from the nozzle.	fabrication	surfactant
		High	properties
		efficiency
		Easy
		extension from
		single nozzles to
		pagewidth print
		heads
Viscosity	The ink viscosity	Simple	Requires	Silverbrook,
reduction	is locally reduced	construction	supplementary	EP 0771 658
	to select which	No	force to effect	A2 and related
	drops are to be	unusual	drop separation	patent
	ejected. A	materials	Requires	applications
	viscosity reduction	required in	special ink
	can be achieved	fabrication	viscosity
	electrothermally	Easy	properties
	with most inks, but	extension from	High
	special inks can be	single nozzles to	speed is difficult
	engineered for a	pagewidth print	to achieve
	100:1 viscosity	heads	Requires
	reduction.		oscillating ink
			pressure
			A high
			temperature
			difference
			(typically 80
			degrees) is
			required
Acoustic	An acoustic wave	Can	Complex	1993
	is generated and	operate without	drive circuitry	Hadimioglu et
	focussed upon the	a nozzle plate	Complex	al, EUP 550,192
	drop ejection		fabrication	1993
	region.		Low	Elrod et al, EUP
			efficiency	572,220
			Poor
			control of drop
			position
			Poor
			control of drop
			volume
Thermo-	An actuator which	Low	Efficient	IJ03, IJ09,
elastic	relies upon	power	aqueous	IJ17, IJ18, IJ19,
bend	differential	consumption	operation	IJ20, IJ21, IJ22,
actuator	thermal expansion	Many ink	requires a	IJ23, IJ24, IJ27,
	upon Joule heating	types can be	thermal insulator	IJ28, IJ29, IJ30,
	is used.	used	on the hot side	IJ31, IJ32, IJ33,
		Simple	Corrosion	IJ34, IJ35, IJ36,
		planar	prevention can	IJ37, IJ38, IJ39,
		fabrication	be difficult	IJ40, IJ41
		Small chip	Pigmented
		area required for	inks may be
		each actuator	infeasible, as
		Fast	pigment particles
		operation	may jam the
		High	bend actuator
		efficiency
		CMOS
		compatible
		voltages and
		currents
		Standard
		MEMS
		processes can be
		used
		Easy
		extension from
		single nozzles to
		pagewidth print
		heads
High CTE	A material with a	High force	Requires	IJ09, IJ17,
thermo-	very high	can be generated	special material	IJ18, IJ20, IJ21,
elastic	coefficient of	Three	(e.g. PTFE)	IJ22, IJ23, IJ24,
actuator	thermal expansion	methods of	Requires a	IJ27, IJ28, IJ29,
	(CTE) such as	PTFE deposition	PTFE deposition	IJ30, IJ31, IJ42,
	polytetrafluoroethylene	are under	process, which is	IJ43, IJ44
	(PTFE) is	development:	not yet standard
	used. As high CTE	chemical vapor	in ULSI fabs
	materials are	deposition	PTFE
	usually non-	(CVD), spin	deposition
	conductive, a	coating, and	cannot be
	heater fabricated	evaporation	followed with
	from a conductive	PTFE is a	high temperature
	material is	candidate for	(above 350° C.)
	incorporated. A 50 μm	low dielectric	processing
	long PTFE	constant	Pigmented
	bend actuator with	insulation in	inks may be
	polysilicon heater	ULSI	infeasible, as
	and 15 mW power	Very low	pigment particles
	input can provide	power	may jam the
	180 μN force and	consumption	bend actuator
	10 μm deflection.	Many ink
	Actuator motions	types can be
	include:	used
	Bend	Simple
	Push	planar
	Buckle	fabrication
	Rotate	Small chip
		area required for
		each actuator
		Fast
Conductive	A polymer with a	High force	Requires	IJ24
polymer	high coefficient of	can be generated	special materials
thermo-	thermal expansion	Very low	development
elastic	(such as PTFE) is	power	(High CTE
actuator	doped with	consumption	conductive
	conducting	Many ink	polymer)
	substances to	types can be	Requires a
	increase its	used	PTFE deposition
	conductivity to	Simple	process, which is
	about 3 orders of	planar	not yet standard
	magnitude below	fabrication	in ULSI fabs
	that of copper. The	Small chip	PTFE
	conducting	area required for	deposition
	polymer expands	each actuator	cannot be
	when resistively	Fast	followed with
	heated.	operation	high temperature
	Examples of	High	(above 350° C.)
	conducting	efficiency	processing
	dopants include:	CMOS	Evaporation
	Carbon nanotubes	compatible	and CVD
	Metal fibers	voltages and	deposition
	Conductive	currents	techniques
	polymers such as	Easy	cannot be used
	doped	extension from	Pigmented
	polythiophene	single nozzles to	inks may be
	Carbon granules	pagewidth print	infeasible, as
		heads	pigment particles
			may jam the
			bend actuator
Shape	A shape memory	High force	Fatigue	IJ26
memory	alloy such as TiNi	is available	limits maximum
alloy	(also known as	(stresses of	number of cycles
	Nitinol - Nickel	hundreds of	Low strain
	Titanium alloy	MPa)	(1%) is required
	developed at the	Large	to extend fatigue
	Naval Ordnance	strain is	resistance
	Laboratory) is	available (more	Cycle rate
	thermally switched	than 3%)	limited by heat
	between its weak	High	removal
	martensitic state	corrosion	Requires
	and its high	resistance	unusual
	stiffness austenitic	Simple	materials (TiNi)
	state. The shape of	construction	The latent
	the actuator in its	Easy	heat of
	martensitic state is	extension from	transformation
	deformed relative	single nozzles to	must be
	to the austenitic	pagewidth print	provided
	shape. The shape	heads	High
	change causes	Low	current operation
	ejection of a drop.	voltage	Requires
		operation	pre-stressing to
			distort the
			martensitic state
Linear	Linear magnetic	Linear	Requires	IJ12
Magnetic	actuators include	Magnetic	unusual
Actuator	the Linear	actuators can be	semiconductor
	Induction Actuator	constructed with	materials such as
	(LIA), Linear	high thrust, long	soft magnetic
	Permanent Magnet	travel, and high	alloys (e.g.
	Synchronous	efficiency using	CoNiFe)
	Actuator	planar	Some
	(LPMSA), Linear	semiconductor	varieties also
	Reluctance	fabrication	require
	Synchronous	techniques	permanent
	Actuator (LRSA),	Long	magnetic
	Linear Switched	actuator travel is	materials such as
	Reluctance	available	Neodymium iron
	Actuator (LSRA),	Medium	boron (NdFeB)
	and the Linear	force is available	Requires
	Stepper Actuator	Low	complex multi-
	(LSA).	voltage	phase drive
		operation	circuitry
			High
			current operation

BASIC OPERATION MODE
	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages	Examples
Actuator	This is the	Simple	Drop	Thermal
directly	simplest mode of	operation	repetition rate is	ink jet
pushes	operation: the	No	usually limited	Piezoelectric
ink	actuator directly	external fields	to around 10 kHz.	ink jet
	supplies sufficient	required	However,	IJ01, IJ02,
	kinetic energy to	Satellite	this is not	IJ03, IJ04, IJ05,
	expel the drop.	drops can be	fundamental to	IJ06, IJ07, IJ09,
	The drop must	avoided if drop	the method, but	IJ11, IJ12, IJ14,
	have a sufficient	velocity is less	is related to the	IJ16, IJ20, IJ22,
	velocity to	than 4 m/s	refill method	IJ23, IJ24, IJ25,
	overcome the	Can be	normally used	IJ26, IJ27, IJ28,
	surface tension.	efficient,	All of the	IJ29, IJ30, IJ31,
		depending upon	drop kinetic	IJ32, IJ33, IJ34,
		the actuator used	energy must be	IJ35, IJ36, IJ37,
			provided by the	IJ38, IJ39, IJ40,
			actuator	IJ41, IJ42, IJ43,
			Satellite	IJ44
			drops usually
			form if drop
			velocity is
			greater than 4.5 m/s
Proximity	The drops to be	Very	Requires	Silverbrook,
	printed are	simple print	close proximity	EP 0771 658
	selected by some	head fabrication	between the	A2 and related
	manner (e.g.	can be used	print head and	patent
	thermally induced	The drop	the print media	applications
	surface tension	selection means	or transfer roller
	reduction of	does not need to	May
	pressurized ink).	provide the	require two print
	Selected drops are	energy required	heads printing
	separated from the	to separate the	alternate rows of
	ink in the nozzle	drop from the	the image
	by contact with the	nozzle	Monolithic
	print medium or a		color print
	transfer roller.		heads are
			difficult
Electro-	The drops to be	Very	Requires	Silverbrook,
static pull	printed are	simple print	very high	EP 0771 658
on ink	selected by some	head fabrication	electrostatic field	A2 and related
	manner (e.g.	can be used	Electrostatic	patent
	thermally induced	The drop	field for small	applications
	surface tension	selection means	nozzle sizes is	Tone-Jet
	reduction of	does not need to	above air
	pressurized ink).	provide the	breakdown
	Selected drops are	energy required	Electrostatic
	separated from the	to separate the	field may
	ink in the nozzle	drop from the	attract dust
	by a strong electric	nozzle
	field.
Magnetic	The drops to be	Very	Requires	Silverbrook,
pull on	printed are	simple print	magnetic ink	EP 0771 658
ink	selected by some	head fabrication	Ink colors	A2 and related
	manner (e.g.	can be used	other than black	patent
	thermally induced	The drop	are difficult	applications
	surface tension	selection means	Requires
	reduction of	does not need to	very high
	pressurized ink).	provide the	magnetic fields
	Selected drops are	energy required
	separated from the	to separate the
	ink in the nozzle	drop from the
	by a strong	nozzle
	magnetic field
	acting on the
	magnetic ink.
Shutter	The actuator	High	Moving	IJ13, IJ17,
	moves a shutter to	speed (>50 kHz)	parts are	IJ21
	block ink flow to	operation can be	required
	the nozzle. The ink	achieved due to	Requires
	pressure is pulsed	reduced refill	ink pressure
	at a multiple of the	time	modulator
	drop ejection	Drop	Friction
	frequency.	timing can be	and wear must
		very accurate	be considered
		The	Stiction is
		actuator energy	possible
		can be very low
Shuttered	The actuator	Actuators	Moving	IJ08, IJ15,
grill	moves a shutter to	with small travel	parts are	IJ18, IJ19
	block ink flow	can be used	required
	through a grill to	Actuators	Requires
	the nozzle. The	with small force	ink pressure
	shutter movement	can be used	modulator
	need only be equal	High	Friction
	to the width of the	speed (>50 kHz)	and wear must
	grill holes.	operation can be	be considered
		achieved	Stiction is
			possible
Pulsed	A pulsed magnetic	Extremely	Requires	IJ10
magnetic	field attracts an	low energy	an external
pull on	‘ink pusher’ at the	operation is	pulsed magnetic
ink	drop ejection	possible	field
pusher	frequency. An	No heat	Requires
	actuator controls a	dissipation	special materials
	catch, which	problems	for both the
	prevents the ink		actuator and the
	pusher from		ink pusher
	moving when a		Complex
	drop is not to be		construction
	ejected.

AUXILIARY MECHANISM (APPLIED TO ALL NOZZLES)
	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages	Examples
None	The actuator	Simplicity	Drop	Most ink
	directly fires the	of construction	ejection energy	jets, including
	ink drop, and there	Simplicity	must be supplied	piezoelectric and
	is no external field	of operation	by individual	thermal bubble.
	or other	Small	nozzle actuator	IJ01, IJ02,
	mechanism	physical size		IJ03, IJ04, IJ05,
	required.			IJ07, IJ09, IJ11,
				IJ12, IJ14, IJ20,
				IJ22, IJ23, IJ24,
				IJ25, IJ26, IJ27,
				IJ28, IJ29, IJ30,
				IJ31, IJ32, IJ33,
				IJ34, IJ35, IJ36,
				IJ37, IJ38, IJ39,
				IJ40, IJ41, IJ42,
				IJ43, IJ44
Oscillating	The ink pressure	Oscillating	Requires	Silverbrook,
ink	oscillates,	ink pressure can	external ink	EP 0771 658
pressure	providing much of	provide a refill	pressure	A2 and related
(including	the drop ejection	pulse, allowing	oscillator	patent
acoustic	energy. The	higher operating	Ink	applications
stimulation)	actuator selects	speed	pressure phase	IJ08, IJ13,
	which drops are to	The	and amplitude	IJ15, IJ17, IJ18,
	be fired by	actuators may	must be	IJ19, IJ21
	selectively	operate with	carefully
	blocking or	much lower	controlled
	enabling nozzles.	energy	Acoustic
	The ink pressure	Acoustic	reflections in the
	oscillation may be	lenses can be	ink chamber
	achieved by	used to focus the	must be
	vibrating the print	sound on the	designed for
	head, or preferably	nozzles
	by an actuator in
	the ink supply.
Media	The print head is	Low	Precision	Silverbrook,
proximity	placed in close	power	assembly	EP 0771 658
	proximity to the	High	required	A2 and related
	print medium.	accuracy	Paper	patent
	Selected drops	Simple	fibers may cause	applications
	protrude from the	print head	problems
	print head further	construction	Cannot
	than unselected		print on rough
	drops, and contact		substrates
	the print medium.
	The drop soaks
	into the medium
	fast enough to
	cause drop
	separation.
Transfer	Drops are printed	High	Bulky	Silverbrook,
roller	to a transfer roller	accuracy	Expensive	EP 0771 658
	instead of straight	Wide	Complex	A2 and related
	to the print	range of print	construction	patent
	medium. A	substrates can be		applications
	transfer roller can	used		Tektronix
	also be used for	Ink can be		hot melt
	proximity drop	dried on the		piezoelectric ink
	separation.	transfer roller		jet
				Any of the
				IJ series
Electro-	An electric field is	Low	Field	Silverbrook,
static	used to accelerate	power	strength required	EP 0771 658
	selected drops	Simple	for separation of	A2 and related
	towards the print	print head	small drops is	patent
	medium.	construction	near or above air	applications
			breakdown	Tone-Jet
Direct	A magnetic field is	Low	Requires	Silverbrook,
magnetic	used to accelerate	power	magnetic ink	EP 0771 658
field	selected drops of	Simple	Requires	A2 and related
	magnetic ink	print head	strong magnetic	patent
	towards the print	construction	field	applications
	medium.
Cross	The print head is	Does not	Requires	IJ06, IJ16
magnetic	placed in a	require magnetic	external magnet
field	constant magnetic	materials to be	Current
	field. The Lorenz	integrated in the	densities may be
	force in a current	print head	high, resulting in
	carrying wire is	manufacturing	electromigration
	used to move the	process	problems
	actuator.
Pulsed	A pulsed magnetic	Very low	Complex	IJ10
magnetic	field is used to	power operation	print head
field	cyclically attract a	is possible	construction
	paddle, which	Small	Magnetic
	pushes on the ink.	print head size	materials
	A small actuator		required in print
	moves a catch,		head
	which selectively
	prevents the
	paddle from
	moving.

ACTUATOR AMPLIFICATION OR MODIFICATION METHOD
	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages	Examples
None	No actuator	Operational	Many	Thermal
	mechanical	simplicity	actuator	Bubble Ink jet
	amplification is		mechanisms	IJ01, IJ02,
	used. The actuator		have insufficient	IJ06, IJ07, IJ16,
	directly drives the		travel, or	IJ25, IJ26
	drop ejection		insufficient
	process.		force, to
			efficiently drive
			the drop ejection
			process
Differential	An actuator	Provides	High	Piezoelectric
expansion	material expands	greater travel in	stresses are	IJ03, IJ09,
bend	more on one side	a reduced print	involved	IJ17, IJ18, IJ19,
actuator	than on the other.	head area	Care must	IJ20, IJ21, IJ22,
	The expansion		be taken that the	IJ23, IJ24, IJ27,
	may be thermal,		materials do not	IJ29, IJ30, IJ31,
	piezoelectric,		delaminate	IJ32, IJ33, IJ34,
	magnetostrictive,		Residual	IJ35, IJ36, IJ37,
	or other		bend resulting	IJ38, IJ39, IJ42,
	mechanism. The		from high	IJ43, IJ44
	bend actuator		temperature or
	converts a high		high stress
	force low travel		during formation
	actuator
	mechanism to high
	travel, lower force
	mechanism.
Transient	A trilayer bend	Very good	High	IJ40, IJ41
bend	actuator where the	temperature	stresses are
actuator	two outside layers	stability	involved
	are identical. This	High	Care must
	cancels bend due	speed, as a new	be taken that the
	to ambient	drop can be fired	materials do not
	temperature and	before heat	delaminate
	residual stress. The	dissipates
	actuator only	Cancels
	responds to	residual stress of
	transient heating of	formation
	one side or the
	other.
Reverse	The actuator loads	Better	Fabrication	IJ05, IJ11
spring	a spring. When the	coupling to the	complexity
	actuator is turned	ink	High
	off, the spring		stress in the
	releases. This can		spring
	reverse the
	force/distance
	curve of the
	actuator to make it
	compatible with
	the force/time
	requirements of
	the drop ejection.
Actuator	A series of thin	Increased	Increased	Some
stack	actuators are	travel	fabrication	piezoelectric ink
	stacked. This can	Reduced	complexity	jets
	be appropriate	drive voltage	Increased	IJ04
	where actuators		possibility of
	require high		short circuits due
	electric field		to pinholes
	strength, such as
	electrostatic and
	piezoelectric
	actuators.
Multiple	Multiple smaller	Increases	Actuator	IJ12, IJ13,
actuators	actuators are used	the force	forces may not	IJ18, IJ20, IJ22,
	simultaneously to	available from	add linearly,	IJ28, IJ42, IJ43
	move the ink. Each	an actuator	reducing
	actuator need	Multiple	efficiency
	provide only a	actuators can be
	portion of the	positioned to
	force required.	control ink flow
		accurately
Linear	A linear spring is	Matches	Requires	IJ15
Spring	used to transform a	low travel	print head area
	motion with small	actuator with	for the spring
	travel and high	higher travel
	force into a longer	requirements
	travel, lower force	Non-
	motion.	contact method
		of motion
		transformation
Coiled	A bend actuator is	Increases	Generally	IJ17, IJ21,
actuator	coiled to provide	travel	restricted to	IJ34, IJ35
	greater travel in a	Reduces	planar
	reduced chip area.	chip area	implementations
		Planar	due to extreme
		implementations	fabrication
		are relatively	difficulty in
		easy to fabricate.	other
			orientations.
Flexure	A bend actuator	Simple	Care must	IJ10, IJ19,
bend	has a small region	means of	be taken not to	IJ33
actuator	near the fixture	increasing travel	exceed the
	point, which flexes	of a bend	elastic limit in
	much more readily	actuator	the flexure area
	than the remainder		Stress
	of the actuator.		distribution is
	The actuator		very uneven
	flexing is		Difficult
	effectively		to accurately
	converted from an		model with finite
	even coiling to an		element analysis
	angular bend,
	resulting in greater
	travel of the
	actuator tip.
Catch	The actuator	Very low	Complex	IJ10
	controls a small	actuator energy	construction
	catch. The catch	Very small	Requires
	either enables or	actuator size	external force
	disables movement		Unsuitable
	of an ink pusher		for pigmented
	that is controlled		inks
	in a bulk manner.
Gears	Gears can be used	Low force,	Moving	IJ13
	to increase travel	low travel	parts are
	at the expense of	actuators can be	required
	duration. Circular	used	Several
	gears, rack and	Can be	actuator cycles
	pinion, ratchets,	fabricated using	are required
	and other gearing	standard surface	More
	methods can be	MEMS	complex drive
	used.	processes	electronics
			Complex
			construction
			Friction,
			friction, and
			wear are
			possible
Buckle	A buckle plate can	Very fast	Must stay	S. Hirata
plate	be used to change	movement	within elastic	et al, “An Ink-jet
	a slow actuator	achievable	limits of the	Head Using
	into a fast motion.		materials for	Diaphragm
	It can also convert		long device life	Microactuator”,
	a high force, low		High	Proc. IEEE
	travel actuator into		stresses involved	MEMS, February
	a high travel,		Generally	1996, pp 418-423.
	medium force		high power	IJ18, IJ27
	motion.		requirement
Tapered	A tapered	Linearizes	Complex	IJ14
magnetic	magnetic pole can	the magnetic	construction
pole	increase travel at	force/distance
	the expense of	curve
	force.
Lever	A lever and	Matches	High	IJ32, IJ36,
	fulcrum is used to	low travel	stress around the	IJ37
	transform a motion	actuator with	fulcrum
	with small travel	higher travel
	and high force into	requirements
	a motion with	Fulcrum
	longer travel and	area has no
	lower force. The	linear
	lever can also	movement, and
	reverse the	can be used for a
	direction of travel.	fluid seal
Rotary	The actuator is	High	Complex	IJ28
impeller	connected to a	mechanical	construction
	rotary impeller. A	advantage	Unsuitable
	small angular	The ratio	for pigmented
	deflection of the	of force to travel	inks
	actuator results in	of the actuator
	a rotation of the	can be matched
	impeller vanes,	to the nozzle
	which push the ink	requirements by
	against stationary	varying the
	vanes and out of	number of
	the nozzle.	impeller vanes
Acoustic	A refractive or	No	Large area	1993
lens	diffractive (e.g.	moving parts	required	Hadimioglu et
	zone plate)		Only	al, EUP 550,192
	acoustic lens is		relevant for	1993
	used to concentrate		acoustic ink jets	Elrod et al, EUP
	sound waves.			572,220
Sharp	A sharp point is	Simple	Difficult	Tone-jet
conductive	used to concentrate	construction	to fabricate
point	an electrostatic		using standard
	field.		VLSI processes
			for a surface
			ejecting ink-jet
			Only relevant for
			electrostatic ink
			jets

ACTUATOR MOTION
	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages	Examples
Volume	The volume of the	Simple	High	Hewlett-
expansion	actuator changes,	construction in	energy is	Packard Thermal
	pushing the ink in	the case of	typically	Ink jet
	all directions.	thermal ink jet	required to	Canon
			achieve volume	Bubblejet
			expansion. This
			leads to thermal
			stress, cavitation,
			and kogation in
			thermal ink jet
			implementations
Linear,	The actuator	Efficient	High	IJ01, IJ02,
normal to	moves in a	coupling to ink	fabrication	IJ04, IJ07, IJ11,
chip	direction normal to	drops ejected	complexity may	IJ14
surface	the print head	normal to the	be required to
	surface. The	surface	achieve
	nozzle is typically		perpendicular
	in the line of		motion
	movement.
Parallel to	The actuator	Suitable	Fabrication	IJ12, IJ13,
chip	moves parallel to	for planar	complexity	IJ15, IJ33,, IJ34,
surface	the print head	fabrication	Friction	IJ35, IJ36
	surface. Drop		Stiction
	ejection may still
	be normal to the
	surface.
Membrane	An actuator with a	The	Fabrication	1982
push	high force but	effective area of	complexity	Howkins U.S. Pat. No.
	small area is used	the actuator	Actuator	4,459,601
	to push a stiff	becomes the	size
	membrane that is	membrane area	Difficulty
	in contact with the		of integration in
	ink.		a VLSI process
Rotary	The actuator	Rotary	Device	IJ05, IJ08,
	causes the rotation	levers may be	complexity	IJ13, IJ28
	of some element,	used to increase	May have
	such a grill or	travel	friction at a pivot
	impeller	Small chip	point
		area
		requirements
Bend	The actuator bends	A very	Requires	1970
	when energized.	small change in	the actuator to be	Kyser et al U.S. Pat. No.
	This may be due to	dimensions can	made from at	3,946,398
	differential	be converted to a	least two distinct	1973
	thermal expansion,	large motion.	layers, or to have	Stemme U.S. Pat. No.
	piezoelectric		a thermal	3,747,120
	expansion,		difference across	IJ03, IJ09,
	magnetostriction,		the actuator	IJ10, IJ19, IJ23,
	or other form of			IJ24, IJ25, IJ29,
	relative			IJ30, IJ31, IJ33,
	dimensional			IJ34, IJ35
	change.
Swivel	The actuator	Allows	Inefficient	IJ06
	swivels around a	operation where	coupling to the
	central pivot. This	the net linear	ink motion
	motion is suitable	force on the
	where there are	paddle is zero
	opposite forces	Small chip
	applied to opposite	area
	sides of the paddle,	requirements
	e.g. Lorenz force.
Straighten	The actuator is	Can be	Requires	IJ26, IJ32
	normally bent, and	used with shape	careful balance
	straightens when	memory alloys	of stresses to
	energized.	where the	ensure that the
		austenitic phase	quiescent bend is
		is planar	accurate
Double	The actuator bends	One	Difficult	IJ36, IJ37,
bend	in one direction	actuator can be	to make the	IJ38
	when one element	used to power	drops ejected by
	is energized, and	two nozzles.	both bend
	bends the other	Reduced	directions
	way when another	chip size.	identical.
	element is	Not	A small
	energized.	sensitive to	efficiency loss
		ambient	compared to
		temperature	equivalent single
			bend actuators.
Shear	Energizing the	Can	Not	1985
	actuator causes a	increase the	readily	Fishbeck U.S. Pat. No.
	shear motion in the	effective travel	applicable to	4,584,590
	actuator material.	of piezoelectric	other actuator
		actuators	mechanisms
Radial	The actuator	Relatively	High force	1970
constriction	squeezes an ink	easy to fabricate	required	Zoltan U.S. Pat. No.
	reservoir, forcing	single nozzles	Inefficient	3,683,212
	ink from a	from glass	Difficult
	constricted nozzle.	tubing as	to integrate with
		macroscopic	VLSI processes
		structures
Coil/	A coiled actuator	Easy to	Difficult	IJ17, IJ21,
uncoil	uncoils or coils	fabricate as a	to fabricate for	IJ34, IJ35
	more tightly. The	planar VLSI	non-planar
	motion of the free	process	devices
	end of the actuator	Small area	Poor out-
	ejects the ink.	required,	of-plane stiffness
		therefore low
		cost
Bow	The actuator bows	Can	Maximum	IJ16, IJ18,
	(or buckles) in the	increase the	travel is	IJ27
	middle when	speed of travel	constrained
	energized.	Mechanically	High force
		rigid	required
Push-Pull	Two actuators	The	Not	IJ18
	control a shutter.	structure is	readily suitable
	One actuator pulls	pinned at both	for ink jets
	the shutter, and the	ends, so has a	which directly
	other pushes it.	high out-of-	push the ink
		plane rigidity
Curl	A set of actuators	Good fluid	Design	IJ20, IJ42
inwards	curl inwards to	flow to the	complexity
	reduce the volume	region behind
	of ink that they	the actuator
	enclose.	increases
		efficiency
Curl	A set of actuators	Relatively	Relatively	IJ43
outwards	curl outwards,	simple	large chip area
	pressurizing ink in	construction
	a chamber
	surrounding the
	actuators, and
	expelling ink from
	a nozzle in the
	chamber.
Iris	Multiple vanes	High	High	IJ22
	enclose a volume	efficiency	fabrication
	of ink. These	Small chip	complexity
	simultaneously	area	Not
	rotate, reducing		suitable for
	the volume		pigmented inks
	between the vanes.
Acoustic	The actuator	The	Large area	1993
vibration	vibrates at a high	actuator can be	required for	Hadimioglu et
	frequency.	physically	efficient	al, EUP 550,192
		distant from the	operation at	1993
		ink	useful	Elrod et al, EUP
			frequencies	572,220
			Acoustic
			coupling and
			crosstalk
			Complex
			drive circuitry
			Poor
			control of drop
			volume and
			position
None	In various ink jet	No	Various	Silverbrook,
	designs the	moving parts	other tradeoffs	EP 0771 658
	actuator does not		are required to	A2 and related
	move.		eliminate	patent
			moving parts	applications
				Tone-jet

NOZZLE REFILL METHOD
	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages	Examples
Surface	This is the normal	Fabrication	Low speed	Thermal
tension	way that ink jets	simplicity	Surface	ink jet
	are refilled. After	Operational	tension force	Piezoelectric
	the actuator is	simplicity	relatively small	ink jet
	energized, it		compared to	IJ01-IJ07,
	typically returns		actuator force	IJ10-IJ14, IJ16,
	rapidly to its		Long refill	IJ20, IJ22-IJ45
	normal position.		time usually
	This rapid return		dominates the
	sucks in air		total repetition
	through the nozzle		rate
	opening. The ink
	surface tension at
	the nozzle then
	exerts a small
	force restoring the
	meniscus to a
	minimum area.
	This force refills
	the nozzle.
Shuttered	Ink to the nozzle	High	Requires	IJ08, IJ13,
oscillating	chamber is	speed	common ink	IJ15, IJ17, IJ18,
ink	provided at a	Low	pressure	IJ19, IJ21
pressure	pressure that	actuator energy,	oscillator
	oscillates at twice	as the actuator	May not
	the drop ejection	need only open	be suitable for
	frequency. When a	or close the	pigmented inks
	drop is to be	shutter, instead
	ejected, the shutter	of ejecting the
	is opened for 3	ink drop
	half cycles: drop
	ejection, actuator
	return, and refill.
	The shutter is then
	closed to prevent
	the nozzle
	chamber emptying
	during the next
	negative pressure
	cycle.
Refill	After the main	High	Requires	IJ09
actuator	actuator has	speed, as the	two independent
	ejected a drop a	nozzle is	actuators per
	second (refill)	actively refilled	nozzle
	actuator is
	energized. The
	refill actuator
	pushes ink into the
	nozzle chamber.
	The refill actuator
	returns slowly, to
	prevent its return
	from emptying the
	chamber again.
Positive	The ink is held a	High refill	Surface	Silverbrook,
ink	slight positive	rate, therefore a	spill must be	EP 0771 658
pressure	pressure. After the	high drop	prevented	A2 and related
	ink drop is ejected,	repetition rate is	Highly	patent
	the nozzle	possible	hydrophobic	applications
	chamber fills		print head	Alternative
	quickly as surface		surfaces are	for:, IJ01-IJ07,
	tension and ink		required	IJ10-IJ14, IJ16,
	pressure both			IJ20, IJ22-IJ45
	operate to refill the
	nozzle.

METHOD OF RESTRICTING BACK-FLOW THROUGH INLET
	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages	Examples
Long inlet	The ink inlet	Design	Restricts	Thermal
channel	channel to the	simplicity	refill rate	ink jet
	nozzle chamber is	Operational	May result	Piezoelectric
	made long and	simplicity	in a relatively	ink jet
	relatively narrow,	Reduces	large chip area	IJ42, IJ43
	relying on viscous	crosstalk	Only
	drag to reduce		partially
	inlet back-flow.		effective
Positive	The ink is under a	Drop	Requires a	Silverbrook,
ink	positive pressure,	selection and	method (such as	EP 0771 658
pressure	so that in the	separation forces	a nozzle rim or	A2 and related
	quiescent state	can be reduced	effective	patent
	some of the ink	Fast refill	hydrophobizing,	applications
	drop already	time	or both) to	Possible
	protrudes from the		prevent flooding	operation of the
	nozzle.		of the ejection	following: IJ01-IJ07,
	This reduces the		surface of the	IJ09-IJ12,
	pressure in the		print head.	IJ14, IJ16, IJ20,
	nozzle chamber			IJ22,, IJ23-IJ34,
	which is required			IJ36-IJ41, IJ44
	to eject a certain
	volume of ink. The
	reduction in
	chamber pressure
	results in a
	reduction in ink
	pushed out through
	the inlet.
Baffle	One or more	The refill	Design	HP
	baffles are placed	rate is not as	complexity	Thermal Ink Jet
	in the inlet ink	restricted as the	May	Tektronix
	flow. When the	long inlet	increase	piezoelectric ink
	actuator is	method.	fabrication	jet
	energized, the	Reduces	complexity (e.g.
	rapid ink	crosstalk	Tektronix hot
	movement creates		melt
	eddies which		Piezoelectric
	restrict the flow		print heads).
	through the inlet.
	The slower refill
	process is
	unrestricted, and
	does not result in
	eddies.
Flexible	In this method	Significantly	Not	Canon
flap	recently disclosed	reduces back-	applicable to
restricts	by Canon, the	flow for edge-	most ink jet
inlet	expanding actuator	shooter thermal	configurations
	(bubble) pushes on	ink jet devices	Increased
	a flexible flap that		fabrication
	restricts the inlet.		complexity
			Inelastic
			deformation of
			polymer flap
			results in creep
			over extended
			use
Inlet filter	A filter is located	Additional	Restricts	IJ04, IJ12,
	between the ink	advantage of ink	refill rate	IJ24, IJ27, IJ29,
	inlet and the	filtration	May result	IJ30
	nozzle chamber.	Ink filter	in complex
	The filter has a	may be	construction
	multitude of small	fabricated with
	holes or slots,	no additional
	restricting ink	process steps
	flow. The filter
	also removes
	particles which
	may block the
	nozzle.
Small	The ink inlet	Design	Restricts	IJ02, IJ37,
inlet	channel to the	simplicity	refill rate	IJ44
compared	nozzle chamber		May result
to nozzle	has a substantially		in a relatively
	smaller cross		large chip area
	section than that of		Only
	the nozzle,		partially
	resulting in easier		effective
	ink egress out of
	the nozzle than out
	of the inlet.
Inlet	A secondary	Increases	Requires	IJ09
shutter	actuator controls	speed of the ink-	separate refill
	the position of a	jet print head	actuator and
	shutter, closing off	operation	drive circuit
	the ink inlet when
	the main actuator
	is energized.
The inlet	The method avoids	Back-flow	Requires	IJ01, IJ03,
is located	the problem of	problem is	careful design to	1J05, IJ06, IJ07,
behind	inlet back-flow by	eliminated	minimize the	IJ10, IJ11, IJ14,
the ink-	arranging the ink-		negative	IJ16, IJ22, IJ23,
pushing	pushing surface of		pressure behind	IJ25, IJ28, IJ31,
surface	the actuator		the paddle	IJ32, IJ33, IJ34,
	between the inlet			IJ35, IJ36, IJ39,
	and the nozzle.			IJ40, IJ41
Part of	The actuator and a	Significant	Small	IJ07, IJ20,
the	wall of the ink	reductions in	increase in	IJ26, IJ38
actuator	chamber are	back-flow can be	fabrication
moves to	arranged so that	achieved	complexity
shut off	the motion of the	Compact
the inlet	actuator closes off	designs possible
	the inlet.
Nozzle	In some	Ink back-	None	Silverbrook,
actuator	configurations of	flow problem is	related to ink	EP 0771 658
does not	ink jet, there is no	eliminated	back-flow on	A2 and related
result in	expansion or		actuation	patent
ink back-	movement of an			applications
flow	actuator which			Valve-jet
	may cause ink			Tone-jet
	back-flow through
	the inlet.

NOZZLE CLEARING METHOD
	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages	Examples
Normal	All of the nozzles	No added	May not	Most ink
nozzle	are fired	complexity on	be sufficient to	jet systems
firing	periodically,	the print head	displace dried	IJ01, IJ02,
	before the ink has		ink	IJ03, IJ04, IJ05,
	a chance to dry.			IJ06, IJ07, IJ09,
	When not in use			IJ10, IJ11, IJ12,
	the nozzles are			IJ14, IJ16, IJ20,
	sealed (capped)			IJ22, IJ23, IJ24,
	against air.			IJ25, IJ26, IJ27,
	The nozzle firing			IJ28, IJ29, IJ30,
	is usually			IJ31, IJ32, IJ33,
	performed during a			IJ34, IJ36, IJ37,
	special clearing			IJ38, IJ39, IJ40,,
	cycle, after first			IJ41, IJ42, IJ43,
	moving the print			IJ44,, IJ45
	head to a cleaning
	station.
Extra	In systems which	Can be	Requires	Silverbrook,
power to	heat the ink, but do	highly effective	higher drive	EP 0771 658
ink heater	not boil it under	if the heater is	voltage for	A2 and related
	normal situations,	adjacent to the	clearing	patent
	nozzle clearing can	nozzle	May	applications
	be achieved by		require larger
	over-powering the		drive transistors
	heater and boiling
	ink at the nozzle.
Rapid	The actuator is	Does not	Effectiveness	May be
succession	fired in rapid	require extra	depends	used with: IJ01,
of	succession. In	drive circuits on	substantially	IJ02, IJ03, IJ04,
actuator	some	the print head	upon the	IJ05, IJ06, IJ07,
pulses	configurations, this	Can be	configuration of	IJ09, IJ10, IJ11,
	may cause heat	readily	the ink jet nozzle	IJ14, IJ16, IJ20,
	build-up at the	controlled and		IJ22, IJ23, IJ24,
	nozzle which boils	initiated by		IJ25, IJ27, IJ28,
	the ink, clearing	digital logic		IJ29, IJ30, IJ31,
	the nozzle. In other			IJ32, IJ33, IJ34,
	situations, it may			IJ36, IJ37, IJ38,
	cause sufficient			IJ39, IJ40, IJ41,
	vibrations to			IJ42, IJ43, IJ44,
	dislodge clogged			IJ45
	nozzles.
Extra	Where an actuator	A simple	Not	May be
power to	is not normally	solution where	suitable where	used with: IJ03,
ink	driven to the limit	applicable	there is a hard	IJ09, IJ16, IJ20,
pushing	of its motion,		limit to actuator	IJ23, IJ24, IJ25,
actuator	nozzle clearing		movement	IJ27, IJ29, IJ30,
	may be assisted by			IJ31, IJ32, IJ39,
	providing an			IJ40, IJ41, IJ42,
	enhanced drive			IJ43, IJ44, IJ45
	signal to the
	actuator.
Acoustic	An ultrasonic	A high	High	IJ08, IJ13,
resonance	wave is applied to	nozzle clearing	implementation	IJ15, IJ17, IJ18,
	the ink chamber.	capability can be	cost if system	IJ19, IJ21
	This wave is of an	achieved	does not already
	appropriate	May be	include an
	amplitude and	implemented at	acoustic actuator
	frequency to cause	very low cost in
	sufficient force at	systems which
	the nozzle to clear	already include
	blockages. This is	acoustic
	easiest to achieve	actuators
	if the ultrasonic
	wave is at a
	resonant frequency
	of the ink cavity.
Nozzle	A microfabricated	Can clear	Accurate	Silverbrook,
clearing	plate is pushed	severely clogged	mechanical	EP 0771 658
plate	against the	nozzles	alignment is	A2 and related
	nozzles. The plate		required	patent
	has a post for		Moving	applications
	every nozzle. A		parts are
	post moves		required
	through each		There is
	nozzle, displacing		risk of damage
	dried ink.		to the nozzles
			Accurate
			fabrication is
			required
Ink	The pressure of the	May be	Requires	May be
pressure	ink is temporarily	effective where	pressure pump	used with all IJ
pulse	increased so that	other methods	or other pressure	series ink jets
	ink streams from	cannot be used	actuator
	all of the nozzles.		Expensive
	This may be used		Wasteful
	in conjunction		of ink
	with actuator
	energizing.
Print	A flexible ‘blade’	Effective	Difficult	Many ink
head	is wiped across the	for planar print	to use if print	jet systems
wiper	print head surface.	head surfaces	head surface is
	The blade is	Low cost	non-planar or
	usually fabricated		very fragile
	from a flexible		Requires
	polymer, e.g.		mechanical parts
	rubber or synthetic		Blade can
	elastomer.		wear out in high
			volume print
			systems
Separate	A separate heater	Can be	Fabrication	Can be
ink	is provided at the	effective where	complexity	used with many
boiling	nozzle although	other nozzle		IJ series ink jets
heater	the normal drop	clearing methods
	ejection	cannot be used
	mechanism does	Can be
	not require it. The	implemented at
	heaters do not	no additional
	require individual	cost in some ink
	drive circuits, as	jet
	many nozzles can	configurations
	be cleared
	simultaneously,
	and no imaging is
	required.

NOZZLE PLATE CONSTRUCTION
	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages	Examples
Electro-	A nozzle plate is	Fabrication	High	Hewlett
formed	separately	simplicity	temperatures and	Packard Thermal
nickel	fabricated from		pressures are	Ink jet
	electroformed		required to bond
	nickel, and bonded		nozzle plate
	to the print head		Minimum
	chip.		thickness
			constraints
			Differential
			thermal
			expansion
Laser	Individual nozzle	No masks	Each hole	Canon
ablated or	holes are ablated	required	must be	Bubblejet
drilled	by an intense UV	Can be	individually	1988
polymer	laser in a nozzle	quite fast	formed	Sercel et al.,
	plate, which is	Some	Special	SPIE, Vol. 998
	typically a	control over	equipment	Excimer Beam
	polymer such as	nozzle profile is	required	Applications, pp.
	polyimide or	possible	Slow	76-83
	polysulphone	Equipment	where there are	1993
		required is	many thousands	Watanabe et al.,
		relatively low	of nozzles per	U.S. Pat. No. 5,208,604
		cost	print head
			May
			produce thin
			burrs at exit
			holes
Silicon	A separate nozzle	High	Two part	K. Bean,
micro-	plate is	accuracy is	construction	IEEE
machined	micromachined	attainable	High cost	Transactions on
	from single crystal		Requires	Electron
	silicon, and		precision	Devices, Vol.
	bonded to the print		alignment	ED-25, No. 10,
	head wafer.		Nozzles	1978, pp 1185-1195
			may be clogged	Xerox
			by adhesive	1990 Hawkins et
				al., U.S. Pat. No.
				4,899,181
Glass	Fine glass	No	Very small	1970
capillaries	capillaries are	expensive	nozzle sizes are	Zoltan U.S. Pat. No.
	drawn from glass	equipment	difficult to form	3,683,212
	tubing. This	required	Not suited
	method has been	Simple to	for mass
	used for making	make single	production
	individual nozzles,	nozzles
	but is difficult to
	use for bulk
	manufacturing of
	print heads with
	thousands of
	nozzles.
Monolithic,	The nozzle plate is	High	Requires	Silverbrook,
surface	deposited as a	accuracy (<1 μm)	sacrificial layer	EP 0771 658
micro-	layer using	Monolithic	under the nozzle	A2 and related
machined	standard VLSI	Low cost	plate to form the	patent
using	deposition	Existing	nozzle chamber	applications
VLSI	techniques.	processes can be	Surface	IJ01, IJ02,
litho-	Nozzles are etched	used	may be fragile to	IJ04, IJ11, IJ12,
graphic	in the nozzle plate		the touch	IJ17, IJ18, IJ20,
processes	using VLSI			IJ22, IJ24, IJ27,
	lithography and			IJ28, IJ29, IJ30,
	etching.			IJ31, IJ32, IJ33,
				IJ34, IJ36, IJ37,
				IJ38, IJ39, IJ40,
				IJ41, IJ42, IJ43,
				IJ44
Monolithic,	The nozzle plate is	High	Requires	IJ03, IJ05,
etched	a buried etch stop	accuracy (<1 μm)	long etch times	IJ06, IJ07, IJ08,
through	in the wafer.	Monolithic	Requires a	IJ09, IJ10, IJ13,
substrate	Nozzle chambers	Low cost	support wafer	IJ14, IJ15, IJ16,
	are etched in the	No		IJ19, IJ21, IJ23,
	front of the wafer,	differential		IJ25, IJ26
	and the wafer is	expansion
	thinned from the
	backside. Nozzles
	are then etched in
	the etch stop layer.
No nozzle	Various methods	No	Difficult	Ricoh
plate	have been tried to	nozzles to	to control drop	1995 Sekiya et al
	eliminate the	become clogged	position	U.S. Pat. No. 5,412,413
	nozzles entirely, to		accurately	1993
	prevent nozzle		Crosstalk	Hadimioglu et al
	clogging. These		problems	EUP 550,192
	include thermal			1993
	bubble			Elrod et al EUP
	mechanisms and			572,220
	acoustic lens
	mechanisms
Trough	Each drop ejector	Reduced	Drop	IJ35
	has a trough	manufacturing	firing direction
	through which a	complexity	is sensitive to
	paddle moves.	Monolithic	wicking.
	There is no nozzle
	plate.
Nozzle slit	The elimination of	No	Difficult	1989 Saito
instead of	nozzle holes and	nozzles to	to control drop	et al U.S. Pat. No.
individual	replacement by a	become clogged	position	4,799,068
nozzles	slit encompassing		accurately
	many actuator		Crosstalk
	positions reduces		problems
	nozzle clogging,
	but increases
	crosstalk due to
	ink surface waves

DROP EJECTION DIRECTION
	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages	Examples
Edge	Ink flow is along	Simple	Nozzles	Canon
(‘edge	the surface of the	construction	limited to edge	Bubblejet 1979
shooter’)	chip, and ink drops	No silicon	High	Endo et al GB
	are ejected from	etching required	resolution is	patent 2,007,162
	the chip edge.	Good heat	difficult	Xerox
		sinking via	Fast color	heater-in-pit
		substrate	printing requires	1990 Hawkins et
		Mechanically	one print head	al U.S. Pat. No.
		strong	per color	4,899,181
		Ease of		Tone-jet
		chip handing
Surface	Ink flow is along	No bulk	Maximum	Hewlett-
(‘roof	the surface of the	silicon etching	ink flow is	Packard TIJ
shooter’)	chip, and ink drops	required	severely	1982 Vaught et
	are ejected from	Silicon	restricted	al U.S. Pat. No.
	the chip surface,	can make an		4,490,728
	normal to the	effective heat		IJ02, IJ11,
	plane of the chip.	sink		IJ12, IJ20, IJ22
		Mechanical
		strength
Through	Ink flow is through	High ink	Requires	Silverbrook,
chip,	the chip, and ink	flow	bulk silicon	EP 0771 658
forward	drops are ejected	Suitable	etching	A2 and related
(‘up	from the front	for pagewidth		patent
shooter’)	surface of the chip.	print heads		applications
		High		IJ04, IJ17,
		nozzle packing		IJ18, IJ24, IJ27-IJ45
		density therefore
		low
		manufacturing
		cost
Through	Ink flow is through	High ink	Requires	IJ01, IJ03,
chip,	the chip, and ink	flow	wafer thinning	IJ05, IJ06, IJ07,
reverse	drops are ejected	Suitable	Requires	IJ08, IJ09, IJ10,
(‘down	from the rear	for pagewidth	special handling	IJ13, IJ14, IJ15,
shooter’)	surface of the chip.	print heads	during	IJ16, IJ19, IJ21,
		High	manufacture	IJ23, IJ25, IJ26
		nozzle packing
		density therefore
		low
		manufacturing
		cost
Through	Ink flow is through	Suitable	Pagewidth	Epson
actuator	the actuator, which	for piezoelectric	print heads	Stylus
	is not fabricated as	print heads	require several	Tektronix
	part of the same		thousand	hot melt
	substrate as the		connections to	piezoelectric ink
	drive transistors.		drive circuits	jets
			Cannot be
			manufactured in
			standard CMOS
			fabs
			Complex
			assembly
			required

INK TYPE
	Description	Advantages	Disadvantages	Examples
Aqueous,	Water based ink	Environmentally	Slow	Most
dye	which typically	friendly	drying	existing ink jets
	contains: water,	No odor	Corrosive	All IJ
	dye, surfactant,		Bleeds on	series ink jets
	humectant, and		paper	Silverbrook,
	biocide.		May	EP 0771 658
	Modern ink dyes		strikethrough	A2 and related
	have high water-		Cockles	patent
	fastness, light		paper	applications
	fastness
Aqueous,	Water based ink	Environmentally	Slow	IJ02, IJ04,
pigment	which typically	friendly	drying	IJ21, IJ26, IJ27,
	contains: water,	No odor	Corrosive	IJ30
	pigment,	Reduced	Pigment	Silverbrook,
	surfactant,	bleed	may clog	EP 0771 658
	humectant, and	Reduced	nozzles	A2 and related
	biocide.	wicking	Pigment	patent
	Pigments have an	Reduced	may clog	applications
	advantage in	strikethrough	actuator	Piezoelectric
	reduced bleed,		mechanisms	ink-jets
	wicking and		Cockles	Thermal
	strikethrough.		paper	ink jets (with
				significant
				restrictions)
Methyl	MEK is a highly	Very fast	Odorous	All IJ
Ethyl	volatile solvent	drying	Flammable	series ink jets
Ketone	used for industrial	Prints on
(MEK)	printing on	various
	difficult surfaces	substrates such
	such as aluminum	as metals and
	cans.	plastics
Alcohol	Alcohol based inks	Fast	Slight	All IJ
(ethanol,	can be used where	drying	odor	series ink jets
2-butanol,	the printer must	Operates	Flammable
and	operate at	at sub-freezing
others)	temperatures	temperatures
	below the freezing	Reduced
	point of water. An	paper cockle
	example of this is	Low cost
	in-camera
	consumer
	photographic
	printing.
Phase	The ink is solid at	No drying	High	Tektronix
change	room temperature,	time-ink	viscosity	hot melt
(hot melt)	and is melted in	instantly freezes	Printed ink	piezoelectric ink
	the print head	on the print	typically has a	jets
	before jetting. Hot	medium	‘waxy’ feel	1989
	melt inks are	Almost	Printed	Nowak U.S. Pat. No.
	usually wax based,	any print	pages may	4,820,346
	with a melting	medium can be	‘block’	All IJ
	point around 80° C.	used	Ink	series ink jets
	After jetting	No paper	temperature may
	the ink freezes	cockle occurs	be above the
	almost instantly	No	curie point of
	upon contacting	wicking occurs	permanent
	the print medium	No bleed	magnets
	or a transfer roller.	occurs	Ink heaters
		No	consume power
		strikethrough	Long
		occurs	warm-up time
Oil	Oil based inks are	High	High	All IJ
	extensively used in	solubility	viscosity: this is	series ink jets
	offset printing.	medium for	a significant
	They have	some dyes	limitation for use
	advantages in	Does not	in ink jets, which
	improved	cockle paper	usually require a
	characteristics on	Does not	low viscosity.
	paper (especially	wick through	Some short
	no wicking or	paper	chain and multi-
	cockle). Oil		branched oils
	soluble dies and		have a
	pigments are		sufficiently low
	required.		viscosity.
			Slow
			drying
Micro-	A microemulsion	Stops ink	Viscosity	All IJ
emulsion	is a stable, self	bleed	higher than	series ink jets
	forming emulsion	High dye	water
	of oil, water, and	solubility	Cost is
	surfactant. The	Water, oil,	slightly higher
	characteristic drop	and amphiphilic	than water based
	size is less than	soluble dies can	ink
	100 nm, and is	be used	High
	determined by the	Can	surfactant
	preferred curvature	stabilize pigment	concentration
	of the surfactant.	suspensions	required (around 5%)

Claims

1. A printhead nozzle arrangement comprising: a wafer defining a chamber for holding ejection fluid;an ejection port supported by a plurality of bridge members which extend from the ejection port to sides of the chamber; anda plurality of heater elements interleaved between the bridge members for causing ejection of fluid held in the chamber through the ejection port.

2. A nozzle arrangement as claimed in claim 1, wherein the heater elements are arranged to be generally circular and comprises a plurality of spaced apart serpentine stations which extend radially inward.

3. A nozzle arrangement as claimed in claim 2, wherein each serpentine station is symmetric and comprises a mirrored pair of serpentine portions.

4. A nozzle arrangement as claimed in claim 1, wherein the ends of the heater elements terminate in a pair of vias which are connected to a metal layer of the wafer.

5. A nozzle arrangement as claimed in claim 1, wherein the chamber is generally funnel-shaped and tapers inwardly away from the ejection port.

6. A nozzle arrangement as claimed in claim 5, wherein the wafer further defines a fluid supply inlet at an apex of the tapered chamber, the supply inlet being substantially aligned with the ejection port.

7. A nozzle arrangement as claimed in claim 1, wherein each bridge member defines a fluid flow guide rail.