PULSE PLATING OF LITHIUM MATERIAL IN ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES

Abstract

The present invention is directed to battery system and operation thereof. In an embodiment, lithium material is plated onto the anode region of a lithium secondary battery cell by a pulsed current. The pulse current may have both positive and negative polarity. One of the polarities causes lithium material to plate onto the anode region, and the opposite polarity causes lithium dendrites to be removed. There are other embodiments as well.

Description

STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

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REFERENCE TO A “SEQUENCE LISTING,” A TABLE, OR A COMPUTER PROGRAM LISTING APPENDIX SUBMITTED ON A COMPACT DISK

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BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to battery system and operation thereof.

In the recent years, with a shortage of fossil-fuel based energy resources and adverse environmental effects from the consumption of fossil fuels, both the public and private sectors have made substantial investments into developing clean technologies. An important aspect of clean technologies is energy storage, or simply battery systems. In the past, many battery types have been developed and used, with their respective advantages and disadvantages. For its chemical properties, including high charge density, lithium material has been used in various parts of a battery. For example, in a rechargeable lithium-ion battery, lithium ions move from negative electrode to the positive electrode (or cathode) during discharging process; lithium ions move from positive electrodes to negative electrode during charging process. Typically, the negative electrode (or anode) accommodates and stores lithium ions when the battery is charged. In conventional lithium battery systems, negative electrodes typically comprise materials, such as graphite and/or organic compounds that store migrating lithium ion material.

Unfortunately, existing anode materials and structures thereof are often inadequate. Therefore, it is desirable to have improved anode materials, structures, and processes thereof.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a simplified diagram illustrating a battery cell having a lithiated anode according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 2 is a simplified diagram illustrating a battery cell in a charging mode according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIGS. 3A and 3B are simplified diagrams illustrating a process of applying pulse current to a battery cell according to an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 4 is a simplified diagram illustrating formation of dendrite.

FIG. 5 is a simplified diagram illustrating lifetime of a battery cell operated with pulse current of about 15 uA.

FIG. 6 is a simplified diagram illustrating lifetime of a battery cell operated with different pulse currents.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to battery system and operation thereof. In an embodiment, lithium material is plated onto the anode region of a lithium secondary battery cell by a pulsed current. The pulse current may have both positive and negative polarity. One of the polarities causes lithium material to plate onto the anode region, and the opposite polarity causes lithium dendrites to be removed. There are other embodiments as well.

As described above, lithium ions move through electrolyte and between positive and negative electrodes upon charging and discharging process. Typically, the anode region of a lithium battery cell comprises material such as graphite to store lithium ions when the battery is charged. According to embodiments of the present invention, lithium ions are plated onto the current collector at the side of the negative electrode. FIG. 1 is a simplified diagram illustrating a battery cell having a lithiated anode according to an embodiment of the present invention. This diagram is merely an example, which should not unduly limit the scope of the claims. One of ordinary skill in the art would recognize many variations, alternatives, and modifications.

The following description is presented to enable one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the invention and to incorporate it in the context of particular applications. Various modifications, as well as a variety of uses in different applications will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art, and the general principles defined herein may be applied to a wide range of embodiments. Thus, the present invention is not intended to be limited to the embodiments presented, but is to be accorded the widest scope consistent with the principles and novel features disclosed herein.

In the following detailed description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a more thorough understanding of the present invention. However, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that the present invention may be practiced without necessarily being limited to these specific details. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shown in block diagram form, rather than in detail, in order to avoid obscuring the present invention.

The reader's attention is directed to all papers and documents which are filed concurrently with this specification and which are open to public inspection with this specification, and the contents of all such papers and documents are incorporated herein by reference. All the features disclosed in this specification, (including any accompanying claims, abstract, and drawings) may be replaced by alternative features serving the same, equivalent or similar purpose, unless expressly stated otherwise. Thus, unless expressly stated otherwise, each feature disclosed is one example only of a generic series of equivalent or similar features.

Furthermore, any element in a claim that does not explicitly state “means for” performing a specified function, or “step for” performing a specific function, is not to be interpreted as a “means” or “step” clause as specified in 35 U.S.C. Section 112, Paragraph 6. In particular, the use of “step of” or “act of” in the Claims herein is not intended to invoke the provisions of 35 U.S.C. 112, Paragraph 6.

Please note, if used, the labels left, right, front, back, top, bottom, forward, reverse, clockwise and counter clockwise have been used for convenience purposes only and are not intended to imply any particular fixed direction. Instead, they are used to reflect relative locations and/or directions between various portions of an object.

FIG. 1 is a simplified diagram illustrating a battery cell having a lithiated anode according to an embodiment of the present invention. This diagram is merely an example, which should not unduly limit the scope of the claims. One of ordinary skill in the art would recognize many variations, alternatives, and modifications. As shown in FIG. 1, a battery cell 100 includes a cathode current collector 101, a cathode region 102, an electrolyte region 103, an anode region 104, and an anode current collector 105. The cathode current collector 101 is electrically conductive. In various embodiments, the cathode current collector 101 comprises metal material, such as aluminum, carbon-coated aluminum, nickel, copper, lithium, polymer material with metal plating, and/or other types of material. The cathode region 102 as shown interfaces with the cathode current collector 101. For example, the cathode region 102 is lithiated and can accommodate lithium ions when the battery cell 100 is discharged. The cathode region is preferably fabricated in the lithiated, (i.e. discharged state), since it will be less reactive in that state. Alternatively, the cathode could be for a lithium-air (Li—O₂) cell or a lithium sulfur (Li—S) cell. For example, Li—O₂ and Li—S refers to elemental lithium, oxygen, and sulfur. Depending on the implementation, materials in their elemental forms can be easier to process than compound form.

The cathode region 102 is coupled to the electrolyte 103. According to embodiments of the present invention, the electrolyte 103 is a solid electrolyte material with a high level of ionic conductivity. For example, the ionic conductivity of the electrolyte can be at least 10⁻⁷ S/cm. The electrolyte may be a ceramic material. Depending on the implementation, electrolyte may also be a polymer, ionic liquid, gel, or liquid electrolyte. The electrolyte may comprise additives such as CsPF₆ or HF that inhibit dendrite formation. Exemplary ceramic electrolyte materials include, but are not limited, to LiPON, LiAlF₄, Li₃N, Liβ″ alumina, (LiLa)TiO₃, Li₉AlSiO₈, garnets such as Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂, antiperovskites such as Li₃ClO, oxide glasses, Lisicon structures such as Li₁₄Zn (GeO₄)₄, Li_3.6Si_0.6P_0.4O₄, sulfide glasses, oxysulfide glasses, sulfide or oxysulfide glass ceramics, sulfide crystals such as Li₃PS₄, Li₁₀XP₂S₁₂ (X=Si, Ge, Sn and combinations thereof), Li₇P₃S₁₁, or Li_3.25Ge_0.25P_0.75S₄. The electrolyte may be comprised of two or more layers of lithium in conducting materials. Interfacing with the other side of the electrolyte 103 is an anode region 104. In various embodiments, the anode region 104 is formed by applying a pulsed current. More specifically, during the charging process of the battery cell 100, lithium ions migrate from cathode region 102 through the electrolyte 103 and plate onto the anode region 104.

The anode current collector 105 provides electrical contacts to the anode region 104. For example, the anode current collector material interfacing the anode region 104 is metal, and the anode current collector interface allows lithium ion to plate onto the metal material during the charging process. As a part of the battery, the anode current collector is a metal material that does not alloy with lithium according to a specific embodiment. Depending on the implementation, the anode current collector may be a metal or a polymer coated with a non-alloying material. As an example, suitable non-alloying materials include titanium nitride, tungsten, molybdenum, copper, nickel, iron or stainless steel. The anode current collector may optionally include a layer of a metal that enhances plating uniformity such as indium, aluminum, or magnesium. The anode current collector may also optionally include a layer that improves adhesion between current collector and electrolyte during lithium stripping (battery discharge). The anode current collector may be a lithium foil or a deposited lithium layer. As an example, battery structures are described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/814,821, entitled “NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL CONVERSION REACTIONS”, filed 23 Apr. 2013, which is incorporated by reference herein for all purposes.

According to various embodiments, the anode region 104 is formed in situ with regard to the battery cell. More specifically, the battery cell 100, before its first operation, does not have the anode region 104; the electrolyte 103 directly interfaces with the anode current collector 105. When the battery cell 101 is charged for the first time (i.e., applying pulse current between the cathode and anode current collector), the anode region 104 is formed by lithium ions plating onto the anode current collector 105. When the battery cell 101 is discharged, the lithium ions at the anode region migrate to the cathode region 102 through the electrolyte 103. The detailed process of forming the anode region with pulsed current is described below.

FIG. 2 is a simplified diagram illustrating a battery cell in a charging mode according to an embodiment of the present invention. This diagram is merely an example, which should not unduly limit the scope of the claims. One of ordinary skill in the art would recognize many variations, alternatives, and modifications. In FIG. 2, a battery cell 200 includes a cathode current collector 201, a cathode region 202, an electrolyte region 203, an anode region 204, and an anode current collector 205. The cathode region is preferably fabricated in a substantially lithiated, i.e. discharged state. The anode region is preferably fabricated in a substantially delithiated state and may be lithiated upon the first charge of the battery. The anode region 204, positioned between the electrolyte 203 and the anode current collector 205, expands during the charging process, as lithium ions migrate into the anode region. For example, the electrolyte 203 is flexible and thus accommodates the volume expansion of the anode region 204. In various embodiments, the electrolyte 203 comprises solid electrolyte material and has a thickness of less than 10 microns. Depending on the implementation, the electrolyte material can also have a thickness of less than 50 microns. The electrolyte interfacing with the lithium metal anode is characterized by a permittivity ϵ and a conductivity σ, and the majority of current pulses are of a duration longer than ϵϵ₀/σ, where &o is the permittivity of free space. The permittivity may be measured by means known to those skilled in the art, for example by measuring the high frequency capacitance of the sample and extracting the permittivity from the formula C=ϵϵ₀A/d, where A is the area of the electrolyte and d is the thickness of the electrolyte. The conductivity may be measured by means known to those skilled in the art, for example by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy or by DC galvanostatic plating at a fixed current of I and measuring the potential V, and calculating σ=(I*d)/(V*A). The characteristic time constant of the electrolyte interface is t=RC, where R is the resistance and C is the capacitance. This time constant may also be expressed t=RC=(d/Aσ)*(ϵϵ₀A/d)=ϵϵ₀/σ and gives the characteristic time that ions move in the electrolyte. It is to be understood that pulses are preferably of a duration longer than this time constant to allow ions sufficient time to move in response to the applied pulse duration. For electrical performance and reliability, it is desirable for the anode region 204 to be substantially uniform. Undesirably, during the charging process, dendrites form near the anode region 204.

For example, FIG. 2 illustrates that dendrite region 206 formed between the anode region 204 and the electrolyte 203. It is to be understood that the dendrites may form in other regions near the anode region 204 and in the electrolyte as well. It is to be understood that lithium plating may be non-uniform in several different morphologies. For example, it may be dendrite-like and/or it may be “mossy”, or high surface area. For example, the non-uniform plating of lithium material may accumulate and worsen over time, thereby degrading battery performance and potentially leading to device failure.

In general, lithium dendriting is undesirable, as it can be a cause of battery failure. More specifically, dendrite formation may create a short circuit between the cathode region 202 and the anode region 204, and such short may constitute a catastrophic failure. Lithium dendrites sometimes cause problems by creating a thermal runaway that leads to safety events.

To solve or otherwise alleviate the dendrite formation problem, conventional battery cells typically use barrier structures that employ oversize graphite (and/or other material) to prevent lithium plating and dendrite formation. Unfortunately, anodes typically have low energy density due to the graphitic anode rather than lithium metal anode and further require exotic chemical additives and formation cycles to form a solid electrolyte interface (SEI). Thus it is to be appreciated that embodiments of the present invention provide techniques of charging the lithiated anode region using pulsed current, which also removes lithium dendrites. It is to be appreciated that by using pulse current to charge battery cells according to embodiments of the present invention, dendriting problems can be alleviated or eliminated inexpensively, without lowering the energy density of battery cells. It is to be appreciated that the pulsed plating may be applied as part of the formation cycle(s) to condition the cell and create a lithium metal anode in situ. This technique may be applied to lithium metal anodes and to other anodes where dendriting is to be avoided, for example, Sn, Si, Ge, graphite, and alloys of these compounds.

FIG. 3A is a simplified diagram illustrating a process of applying pulsed current to a battery cell according to an embodiment of the present invention. This diagram is merely an example, which should not unduly limit the scope of the claims. One of ordinary skill in the art would recognize many variations, alternatives, and modifications. The waveform shown in FIG. 3 is a current waveform for galvanostatic pulse (and/or reverse-pulse) plating of lithium material onto the anode (or anode current collector). On the waveform, I_f is the forward (plating) current, I_r is the reverse (stripping) current, t_r is the time during which the forward current is applied, and t_r is the time during which the reverse current is applied. When I_f is applied to the cathode and anode current collectors over t_f, lithium ions move from cathode to anode and plate onto the anode region and/or the anode current collector. The magnitudes of I_f and the duration t_f are specifically calibrated to promote lithium plating uniformity and avoid dendrite formation. The amount of lithium plating is a function I_f and t_f, or total charge applied during t_f. In various embodiments, the pulse current is characterized by a net current density of 0.1 mA/cm² to 50 mA/cm². Although the schematic in FIG. 3 presents substantially square waveforms for the plating and stripping current, other waveforms may be used as well. For example, the waveform may be sawtooth, rounded as in FIG. 3B, or arbitrary.

During t_r, current I_r, which is opposite in polarity relative to the I_f, is applied to the battery cell. It is to be appreciated that while I_f and I_r are respectively shown as negative and positive, the polarities are relative to the battery cell terminals; it is to be understood that If is meant to represent a polarity for lithium plating, and I_r for lithium stripping. In certain embodiments, the magnitude of I_r is substantially zero. A non-zero magnitude of I_r is applied for the purpose of removing dendrite that may have formed during tr. More specifically, during t_r, lithium is preferentially stripped from the tip of dendrites due to the field concentration around dendrite tips (the very effect that causes dendritic growth). FIG. 4 is a simplified diagram illustrating formation of dendrite. As shown in FIG. 4, electric field concentrates at dendrite tips, which causes a “mossy” dendritic growth. Now referring back to FIG. 3; the total amount of lithium material to be removed is less than the total amount of lithium that has plated.

According to various embodiments, both t_f and t_r, the forward and reverse time, should be longer than the RC time constant of Li plating at the interface between the lithium and electrolyte. For example, t_f and t_r duration are on the order of 1 ms or greater.

The plating efficiency is the forward charge plated (Q_plate=∫I_platedt_plate) less the charge stripped (Q_strip=∫I_stripdt_strip) divided by total charge plated, as expressed in the equation below:

$\eta =\frac{Q_{\mathrm{plate}}-Q_{\mathrm{strip}}}{Q_{\mathrm{plate}}}$

The plating efficiency η is typically greater than 50%. However, a “clean-up” cycle may be performed in which the plating efficiency is less than 50%, and may be negative. For the pulsed current, the average net current is defined by the equation below:

$I_{avg,\mathrm{net}}=\frac{\int I_{place}dt-\int I_{\mathrm{strip}}dt}{t_{\mathrm{tot}}}$

To increase the efficiency, the greatest ratio of Q_plate/Q_strip is desired. In the limit that Q_strip→0, only forward plating is performed, which may result in dendrites. It is be appreciated that there is an optimum range of the 4 parameters, as explained below, that leads to effective suppression of dendrites while retaining high efficiency. One example setting is to use a substantially square current waveform with I_plate=I_strip=0.1 mA/cm² and t_f=25 ms, t_r=5 ms. Another example is to use a substantially square current waveform with I_plate−I_strip/x where 1≤x≤10 and t_f=t_r*y where 1.1x≤y≤5x. Another example is to use an RC-shaped waveform with similar ranges for the times and maximum current magnitudes. As t_plate and t_strip increase at a fixed ratio of t_plate/t_strip, it is to be appreciated that the pulsed plating effectively approaches DC plating. Therefore, many of the benefits of pulsed plating are derived at shorter plating and stripping times, for example t_plate<60 s, or t_plate<15 s or t_plate<2 s or t_plate<100 ms or t_plate<50 ms.

The stripping current is preferably large enough to be in the IR-limited regime as opposed to the activation-limited regime. This may be determined by a Tafel plot of the overpotential versus the logarithm of the current density. The activation-limited regime at low current density will appear linear on this plot. A deviation from linearity often signifies a transition into the IR-limited regime. It is to be appreciated that stripping in the IR limited regime will enhance the selectivity of stripping from a dendrite tip since the ohmic (IR) drop will be lower for current traveling to a protrusion (dendrite)) than for current traversing the entire electrolyte to the evenly plated material.

It is to be appreciated that the pulsed current can have multiple cycles, even though FIG. 3 only one cycle that includes t_f and t_r. It is to be understood that to fully charge a battery cell, a large number of cycles may be required. Depending on the implementation, pulse magnitude and duration may be variable too. In the case where the anode is fully discharged (contains no lithium), pulse plating may be especially useful to nucleate a good smooth layer. Lithium plating is known to occur with some overpotential, therefore it will nucleate in localized areas and further plating will occur preferentially on top of those areas resulting in an increasing roughness. Pulse and pulse/reverse-pulse plating may alleviate this issue.

The pulse current illustrated in FIG. 3 can be used for forming anode region and/or charging a battery cell. In a specific embodiment, a battery cell as manufactured does not have an anode region; lithium ions are stored at the cathode region, and the anode current collector interfaces directly with the electrolyte. Upon first charging of the battery cell, with pulsed current illustrated in FIG. 3, the lithium ions at the cathode region migrate across the electrolyte to form an anode region between the anode current collector and the electrolyte. With the anode region formed, the future charging processes, which can be performed with pulsed current, redeposit lithium ions to the anode region.

It is to be appreciated that the charging techniques with pulsed current according to embodiments of the present invention provide numerous benefits. FIG. 5 presents experimental data comparing the lifetime of a battery cell operated with DC plating versus a pulse current of about I_r=I_f=15 uA over an area of 0.28 cm². The results show a statistically significant difference that the pulse plating prolongs lifetime to failure of the cell. At 15 uA, the sample battery cell that underwent pulsed plating with square pulses with t_f=125 ms and t_r=50 ms had a statistically significant longer lifetime. The test platform used was an iron back electrode contact, LiPON solid state electrolyte of 400 nm thickness with a pressed Li foil top electrode that served as the Li source. The ratio of the pulse/strip current was held to 2.5 for all cases. Compared to charging with continuous DC current, charging with charged current provide much better reliability and lifetime.

FIG. 6 presents experimental data illustrating lifetime of a battery cell operated with different pulse currents. Using a test platform with iron back contact of area 0.28 cm² and LiPON solid-state electrolyte of about 400 nm thickness with a pressed lithium foil as lithium source and top electrode, current was run in DC or pulsed modes until failure was measured by a voltage drop towards 0V from the plating (stripping) voltage. The plated charge at cell failure was calculated from Q_net=Q_plate−Q_strip. From the top to bottom, the circles represent pulsed current of 5, 15, and 30 uA. An increase in the plating current increases the time to failure. This result is consistent with DC plating results in FIG. 5.

A statistical analysis of failure in cells with geometry as described above is summarized in the following table:

TABLE 1
Plated charge [mC] at cell failure	Lowest quartile (25%)	Lowest 10%
DC plating	18.6	1.5
Pulse plating	53.6	15

As shown in table 1 above, samples have a much higher reliability (measured in plated charge at cell failure) for pulse plating, than DC plating. For the lowest 10% where the earliest failures occur, pulse plating is as much as 10 times (15 mC v. 1.5 mC) more reliable than DC plating. This is an important reliability metric for a product since it is desirable that the earliest onset of failures occurs at as late a time as possible. At the lowest quartile, pulse plating can provide lifetime of about 3 times (53.6 mC v. 18.6 mC) longer than DC plating. By having much higher reliability rating at lowest quartile and lowest decile, devices with pulse plating can last longer and be more safe than the device with DC plating.

It is to be understood that while above description provides exemplary parameters for electrochemical device structures and operations thereof, actual parameters depend on specific implementations, and should not unduly limit the claims. For example, a large number of battery cells may be stacked in parallel, and as a result a large current is needed to charge these battery cells, cause lithium material to plate the anode region, and/or remove the lithium dendrite.

According to certain embodiments, battery cells are managed by a battery management system (BMS), which stores information related to the properties of the battery cells. Among other things, state of charge information and parameters for charging with pulsed current are stored in the BMS. When the battery cells are to be charged, parameters for the pulsed current are determined based on the information stored in the BMS. In a specific embodiment, the BMS comprises a charging mechanism that converts constant DC current received from a charging station to a pulsed current suitable for charging the battery cells.

According to an embodiment, a BMS includes sensor that monitors the state of charge for the battery cells. The anode regions of the battery cells are characterized by variable thicknesses associated with the number of life cycles of the battery device. For example, once a battery device cycles many times, the thickness of the anode region(s) increases as result of lithium material permanently deposited at the anode regions. The BMS system, by monitoring the thickness of the anode region, can determine charging characteristics for the battery device.

In certain embodiments, charging with a pulsed current is performed by a charging device. For example, battery cells together form a battery pack, which essentially powers the drivetrain of an electric vehicle (EV). To charge, the battery pack is plugged into a charging device, which can be a commercial charging station or a home charging setup. The charging device is configured to generate a pulsed current to charge the battery pack. In a specific embodiment, the charging device obtains information related to the characteristics of the battery pack and/or the battery cells (state of charge, state of health, etc.), and various parameters (e.g., pulse magnitude, duration, plating efficiency, etc.) of the pulsed current are determined accordingly. In addition to generating a pulsed current, the charging device may additionally be adapted to perform other tasks, such as performing AC/DC power conversion, regulating power supply, and others.

Alternately, a battery charging station may be configured so as to deliver pulsed current for charging of electrical applications. Electric vehicle charging requires high power delivery, thus the charging station will need particular high power switching electronics to be able to switch high currents. For example, level 1 charging requires 120 VAC at 16 A, level 2 charging requires 208 VAC and 12-80 A (roughly 2-20 kW), and level 3 requires 300-600 VDC and up to 400 A (up to 240 kW).

While the above is a full description of the specific embodiments, various modifications, alternative constructions and equivalents may be used. Therefore, the above description and illustrations should not be taken as limiting the scope of the present invention which is defined by the appended claims.

Claims

1.-33. (canceled)

34. A lithium battery device comprising: a lithiated cathode region having a first surface and a second surface;a first current collector overlying the first surface of the lithiated cathode region;a solid electrolyte having a third surface and a fourth surface, the third surface interfacing the second surface, the solid electrolyte region being characterized by an ionic conductivity of at least 10−7 S/cm;an anode region having a fifth surface and a sixth surface, the fifth surface interfacing the fourth surface;a second current collector overlaying the sixth surface;wherein the anode region is formed by in-situ application of a plurality of current pulses between the first current collector and the second current collector;wherein the solid electrolyte region comprises a layer of lithium-stuffed garnet solid electrolyte; andwherein the plurality of current pulses are calibrated to promote lithium plating uniformity.

35. The device of claim 34, further comprising a dendrite layer within the proximity of the anode region, the plurality of current pulses being configured to remove at least a part of the dendrite layer.

36. The lithium battery device of claim 34, wherein the anode region is characterized by a variable thickness, the variable thickness associated with a state of charge of the lithium battery device.

37. The lithium battery device of claim 34, wherein the anode region is characterized by a variable thickness, the variable thickness being associated with the first pulse current.

38. The device of claim 34, wherein the anode region is characterized by a variable thickness, the variable thickness being associated with a number of life cycles of the lithium battery device.

39. The lithium battery device of claim 34, wherein the anode region is characterized by a variable thickness and further comprises a sensor for monitoring a state of charge.

40. The lithium battery device of claim 34, wherein the plurality of current pulses is characterized by an average net current density of 0.1 mA/cm2 to 50 mA/cm2.

41. The lithium battery device of claim 34, wherein the plurality of current pulses is characterized by substantially square waveforms.

42. The lithium battery device of claim 34, wherein the plurality of current pulses is characterized by sawtooth, rounded waveforms.

43. The lithium battery device of claim 34, wherein the plurality of current pulses comprises a first pulse and a second pulse, wherein the first pulse is characterized by a first amount of charge and a first polarity during a first duration, and the second pulse is characterized by a second amount of charge and a second polarity during a second duration.

44. The lithium battery device of claim 43, wherein the first amount of charge is greater than the second amount of charge.

45. The lithium battery device of claim 43, wherein each pulse has a magnitude, and wherein the magnitude of the second pulse is substantially zero.

46. The lithium battery device of claim 43, wherein the first polarity is opposite from the second polarity.

47. The lithium battery device of claim 43, wherein the first pulse is interspersed by rest periods.

48. The lithium battery device of claim 34, wherein the solid electrolyte is characterized by a thickness of less than 50 microns.

49. The lithium battery device of claim 34, wherein the solid electrolyte includes CsPF6, HF, or combinations thereof.

50. The lithium battery device of claim 34, wherein the anode region is a lithium metal anode.

51. The lithium battery device of claim 43, wherein the first pulse causes a formation of a layer of lithium metal anode positioned between the second current collector and the fourth surface.