The present invention relates to quantum cryptography, and in particular relates to and has industrial utility for systems and methods for enhancing the security of a quantum key distribution (QKD) system by adding classical encryption to the quantum key distribution process.
Quantum key distribution involves establishing a key between a sender (“Alice”) and a receiver (“Bob”) by using weak (e.g., 0.1 photon on average) optical signals transmitted over a “quantum channel.” The security of the key distribution is based on the quantum mechanical principle that any measurement of a quantum system in unknown state will modify its state. As a consequence, an eavesdropper (“Eve”) that attempts to intercept or otherwise measure the quantum signal will introduce errors into the transmitted signals, thereby revealing her presence.
The general principles of quantum cryptography were first set forth by Bennett and Brassard in their article “Quantum Cryptography: Public key distribution and coin tossing,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Computers, Systems and Signal Processing, Bangalore, India, 1984, pp. 175-179 (IEEE, New York, 1984). Specific QKD systems are described in publications by C. H. Bennett et al entitled “Experimental Quantum Cryptography” J. Cryptology 5: 3-28 (1992), and by C. H. Bennett entitled “Quantum Cryptography Using Any Two Non-Orthogonal States”, Phys. Rev. Lett. 68 3121 (1992).
The above-mentioned publications each describe a so-called “one-way” QKD system wherein Alice randomly encodes the polarization or phase of single photons, and Bob randomly measures the polarization or phase of the photons. The one-way system described in the Bennett 1992 paper is based on two optical fiber Mach-Zehnder interferometers. Respective parts of the interferometric system are accessible by Alice and Bob so that each can control the phase of the interferometer. The signals (pulses) sent from Alice to Bob are time-multiplexed and follow different paths. As a consequence, the interferometers need to be actively stabilized to within a few tens of nanoseconds during transmission to compensate for thermal drifts.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,438,234 to Gisin (the '234 patent), which patent is incorporated herein by reference, discloses a so-called “two-way” QKD system that is autocompensated for polarization and thermal variations. Thus, the two-way QKD system of the '234 patent is less susceptible to environmental effects than a one-way system.
The general process for performing QKD is described in the book by Bouwmeester et al., “The Physics of Quantum Information,” Springer-Verlag 2001, in Section 2.3, pages 27-33. As described therein, during the QKD process, Alice uses a true random number generator (TRNG) to generate a random bit for the basis (“basis bit”) and a random bit for the key (“key bit”) to create a qubit (e.g., using polarization or phase encoding) and sends this qubit to Bob. The collection of exchanged gubits is called the “raw key.” Alice and Bob then use a public channel compare the bases used to measure the qubits and keep only those bits having the same basis. This collection of bits is called the “sifted key.
While QKD is theoretically secure, the practical implementation of QKD allows for several ways for an eavesdropper to get information about the key bits. For example, to encode the value of a key bit on a photon one needs fast electronics, which produce electromagnetic radiation. This radiation can be measured by an eavesdropper in a so-called “side channel attack.” For phase-encoded QKD, this may be a serious problem, since phase modulators can actually produce enough measurable electromagnetic (EM) radiation. Second, an eavesdropper might get partial information on the key by monitoring transmission in the fiber. This is possible when multi-photon pulses are produced by a weak coherent source. An eavesdropper can measure such pulses without introducing errors in the transmission. Third, an eavesdropper may be able to launch a so called “Trojan horse attack” on Alice with a well-timed probing pulse in order to obtain information about the state of the phase modulator.
As described in greater detail below, a first aspect of the invention is a method of performing quantum key distribution (QKD). The method includes generating a random set of key bits, encrypting the key bits, and then using the encrypted key bits to form encrypted qubits.
A second aspect of the invention is a method of performing QKD. The method includes, at a first station: generating a random set of key bits, generating a pad (password) by a stream cipher (e.g., AES-256 in CTR mode), XOR-ing the key bits and the pad to obtain encrypted key bits, and then modulating weak optical pulses using the encrypted key bits to generate encrypted qubits.
A third aspect of the invention is related to the second aspect of the invention, and further includes performing the following acts at a second QKD station optically coupled to the first QKD station: measuring the encrypted qubits using a random basis, and recovering at least a subset of the key bits from the measured encrypted qubits by XOR-ing the measured encrypted qubits with the pad. These and other aspects of the invention are described below.
Bob includes a controller 120 having a TRNG 130 and an e/d module 140. In an example embodiment, TRNG 130 and e/d module 140 are coupled so that random numbers generated by TRNG 130 and used as basis bits for Bob can also be stored in e/d module 140.
Bob also includes a single-photon detector 150 and a polarization or phase modulator PM2 arranged upstream of the detector and optically coupled thereto. PM2 is operably coupled to TRNG 130, and detector 150 is operably coupled to e/d module 140.
Bob and Alice are operably coupled by a quantum communication link (channel) 200, which in an example embodiment is an optical fiber. Also in an example embodiment, Alice's controller 20 and Bob's controller 120 are operably connected via a public communication link (channel) 220 for timing and synchronizing the operation of system 10, and for otherwise publicly communicating information between Bob and Alice. For example, encrypted basis bits can be sent from Alice to Bob via channel 220. In an example embodiment, e/d module 40 and/or 140 includes a computer-readable medium in which is embodied encryption software that includes executable instructions for controllers 20 and 120 to carry out the methods of the present invention as described below.
With continuing reference to
However, as discussed above, there are potential security shortcomings in this QKD process. To address these shortcomings, the present invention further involves encrypting (e.g., at the software level) using e/d module 40 at least the key bits from TRNG 30 used to set Alice's phase modulator state for each qubit. This results in “encrypted qubits” being sent to Bob.
The invention further includes recovering a corresponding set of key bits from the encrypted qubits received by Bob using e/d module 140. As discussed below, the “corresponding set” of key bits is typically a subset of the original set of key bits due to the loss of encrypted qubits as they pass over quantum channel 200.
The method of encrypting Alice's key bits is illustrated in
In an example embodiment of the invention, key-bit values ki are encrypted by e/d module 30 with a stream cipher (e.g., AES in CTR mode). To do this, Bob and Alice must share a pre-agreed password. The stream cipher is needed because some qubits can be lost in quantum channel 200. The loss of qubits during transmission precludes the use of other types of ciphers.
Suppose Alice and Bob share a password P. In an example embodiment, password P is created by either using a fraction of their key generated by QKD. In another example embodiment, password P is created using one of the known methods, such as secure currier or Diffie-Hellman protocol. In an example embodiment, Alice and Bob agree to refresh the password P at a chosen rate. Having this password, they can generate a pad p1, p2, . . . pi, . . . pn by means of a stream cipher
Once the pad is generated, Alice then performs in e/d module 30 the “exclusive OR” (XOR) operation:
ki XOR pi=ci
Alice also sets her phase modulator PM1 to encode ci on a qubit, not ki. This process is illustrated in the flow diagram of
When Bob performs his measurement of the encoded qubit with randomly modulated PM2 and detector 150, he gets the value of c*i, which typically is a subset of ci, since some qubits are usually lost during transmission due to losses in the quantum channel 200. In an example embodiment, the c*i are stored in e/d module 140.
As illustrated in the flow diagram of
k*i=c*i XOR pi.
The key bit set k*i is typically a subset of the original key bit set because of the loss of encrypted qubits as they travel over quantum channel 200.
At this point, Bob and Alice run standard QKD procedures (e.g., sifting, error correction, privacy amplification). It is preferable that all information sent during the latter procedures is encrypted with a cipher of the cryptographic strength not lower than the stream cipher. Some information has to be authenticated, as required in the BB84 protocol.
Alternatively, Alice and Bob can run sifting and/or error correction first and decrypt the bits afterwards. This would require some simple modifications of the decryption process.
Any information an eavesdropper can obtain by launching a side channel or any optical attack on QKD system 10 operated in the manner described above can only yield information about encrypted key bits ci rather than the actual key bits ki.
In an example embodiment of the invention, the basis bits are encrypted in addition to the key bits to provide an additional level of security. In an example embodiment, this is done by encrypting the basis bits and sending them over the standard communication channel 220. However, encrypting the key bits alone provides a high degree increase security over the prior art QKD process.
Implementing the method of the present invention prevents an eavesdropper from getting access to the plaintext key even in the case of fatal failure of QKD device. In case of a fatal failure of the QKD system, the maximum amount of information an eavesdropper can obtain is the classically encrypted key.
The present invention was described above in connection a one-way QKD system for the sake of illustration. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the present invention also applies generally to quantum cryptography, and in particular to a two-way QKD system, and to any QKD system that encodes the phase or polarization of weak pulses using a modulator-type element.
The present invention also provides a way for a quantum-based cryptography system to satisfy information processing standards, such as the Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) for the United States, that exist for classical encryption systems. Presently, satisfying the relevant information processing standards for a given country is problematic for those seeking to commercialize quantum cryptography systems because such standards do not presently exist.
Though information processing standards are ostensibly for the procurement of equipment by governments, the practical effect is that private industry also looks to such standards when purchasing equipment. This is particularly true in the United States, for example, because certain government institutions (e.g. the National Institute for Standards and Technology, or “NIST”) collaborate with national and international standards committees, users, industry groups, consortia and research and trade organizations to develop the standards. Thus, it is to a company's business advantage that their equipment satisfies the particular information processing standards even if it has no intention of selling equipment to the government in question.
By layering a classical encryption system that is compliant with local information processing standards with quantum encryption according to the present invention, the system as a whole can comply with the classical encryption information processing standards.
In the foregoing Detailed Description, various features are grouped together in various example embodiments for ease of understanding. The many features and advantages of the present invention are apparent from the detailed specification, and, thus, it is intended by the appended claims to cover all such features and advantages of the described apparatus that follow the true spirit and scope of the invention. Furthermore, since numerous modifications and changes will readily occur to those of skill in the art, it is not desired to limit the invention to the exact construction, operation and example embodiments described herein. Accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the appended claims.
This patent application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/519,489, filed on Nov. 13, 2003.
Filing Document | Filing Date | Country | Kind | 371c Date |
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PCT/US2004/004450 | 2/13/2004 | WO | 00 | 4/28/2006 |
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WO2005/057927 | 6/23/2005 | WO | A |
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