Patent Grant
8168771
The invention relates to consensus sequences for hepatitis C virus and uses thereof. The invention also relates to immunogenic epitopes of hepatitis C virus and uses thereof. The invention also relates to methods of prophylaxis, treating, and diagnosing individuals infected with or exposed to hepatitis C virus.
Currently, it is estimated there are about 270 to 300 million people worldwide who are infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV), 2.7 to 4 million of those are in the United States. In industrialized countries, HCV accounts for 20% of cases of acute hepatitis, 70% of cases of chronic hepatitis, 40% of cases of end-stage cirrhosis, 60% of cases of hepatocellular carcinoma and 30-40% of liver transplants. The incidence of new symptomatic infections of HCV has been estimated to be 13 cases/100,000 persons annually. For every one person that is infected with the AIDS virus, there are more than four infected with HCV. Currently, 8,000 to 10,000 deaths each year are a result of Hepatitis C (updated Jan. 31, 2006). The CDC (Center For Disease Control) estimates that there are up to 30,000 new HCV infections in the U.S. every year.
About 80% of HCV-infected individuals have no signs or symptoms. In others, the symptom include: jaundice, fatigue, dark urine, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, and nausea. For 55-85% of infected individuals, over the long term, HCV infection persists and become a chronic infection. Of the chronically infected individuals, about 30% develop liver disease.
Hepatitis C virus has six different genotypes. The most prevalent types circulating in the Western countries are sub-genotypes 1a and 1b. In a person with chronic infection, hepatitis C virus reproduces up to 1012 virion each day. Neumann, et al. Science 282:103-107 (1998). This rate of reproduction exceeds the rate of reproduction for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) by an order of magnitude. The reproduction rate of HCV coupled with the lack of proofreading function by the HCV RNA polymerase results many mutations in HCV sequences.
Treatments for hepatitis C include interferon and ribavirin, both of which are licensed for the treatment of persons with chronic hepatitis C. Interferon can be taken alone or in combination with ribavirin. Combination therapy, using pegylated interferon and ribavirin, is currently the treatment of choice. Combination therapy can get rid of the virus in up to 5 out of 10 persons for genotype 1 and in up to 8 out of 10 persons for genotype 2 and 3.
There are no known vaccines for the prevention of hepatitis C virus infection. Until the present inventors made their discovery herein, the reason as to why individuals with chronic stage HCV infection had weak and ineffective immune responses was poorly understood. The inventors and others have demonstrated that most, if not all of the HCV sequences obtained from persons with HCV infection contain epitope escape variants. As such, the inventors have made a novel and useful discovery that describes, inter alia, the reasons for the observed genetic changes taking place during infection of a human host. These include the tendency of the virus to mutate towards a consensus sequence that is optimal for viral replication and fitness, and the competing tendency of the virus to mutate away from sequences that induce effective immunological responses in particular human hosts. This discovery has important implications for vaccine design.
Several computational alternatives to isolate-based vaccine design exist. One approach is reconstruction of the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) sequence. In this type of analysis, the ancestral state is an estimate of the actual sequence that existed in the past (i.e., it comes directly from the reconstructed history). See Science, 299:1515-1518 (2003). Another type of computational analysis is a center of the tree (COT) approach. The COT approach identifies a point on the unrooted phylogeny, where the average evolutionary distance from that point to each tip on the phylogeny is minimized. Advocates of this approach state that because the COT is a point on the phylogeny, the estimated COT sequence will have the same advantages as the estimated ancestral sequence. See, for example, U.S. Application 2005/0137387 A1. However, this COT approach is sufficiently complex that reducing it to practice for a large and heterologous data set is not practical with technology; specifically, the phylogenetic methods cannot address a sparse data set like the one for HCV, wherein most of the data for any individual sequence are missing. In addition, the premise of the COT approach is that when the phylogenetic tree is unbalanced (dominated by a particular lineage), the COT approach proposed therein provides a more representative sequence than the ancestral sequence. However, the HCV tree has been shown, by the inventors and others, to be balanced and star-like (see Ray S C et al, J Exp Med 2005 Jun. 6; 201(11):1753-9 and Salemi M and Vandamme A, J Mol Evol 2002; 54:62-70). Overall, the MRCA and COT approaches are impractical for application to the HCV sequence database, and their primary justification does not apply.
A third type of computational analysis is the consensus sequence approach. Because the consensus sequence is composed of the amino acid most commonly observed at each position, it likely represents the most fit state of the virus. Thus, effective evasion of the immune response by selection of a sequence divergent from consensus may result in a less fit virus from a replicative standpoint. The consensus sequence approach favors heavily sampled sublineages and deemphasizes outliers. The consideration of an unbalanced phylogenetic tree is not important for HCV, because the phylogeny is balanced (star-like). As such, the approaches disclosed herein are far more straightforward than the other types of computational analysis. Furthermore, these approaches can use the entire data set for HCV. One advantage of the consensus sequence is that it minimizes the genetic differences between vaccine strains and contemporary isolates, effectively reducing the extent of diversity by half, and thus it may have enhanced potential for eliciting cross-reactive responses.
A computational method is therefore needed to generate a sequence for use in vaccines that more broadly represents circulating strains, and also restores the immunogenic forms of HCV epitopes. Currently, there is a need for a method to effectively treat individuals who are infected with HCV or exposed to HCV. With the decline in an infected individual's immune system as he/she enters chronic phase, it would be highly desirable to lessen that individual's chances of progressing to the chronic phase by administering a form of treatment during the acute phase of infection. Most chronically infected people are ineligible for the currently available therapies. A vaccine could be used to enhance responses to currently available or future therapies. Further, there is a need for a prophylaxis of HCV infection. The invention disclosed herein meets all these needs and provides even more beneficial uses.
All references, patent, and patent applications cited in this patent application are herein incorporated by reference, each in its respective entirety for all purposes.
The invention provides for an isolated nucleic acid encoding an HCV polyprotein or a fragment thereof wherein the HCV polyprotein comprises the consensus sequence 1a (SEQ ID NO: 1). In one embodiment, the invention is a nucleic acid wherein the encoded HCV polyprotein or fragment thereof comprises one or more of the non-synonymous changes shown in Table 5.
In one aspect, the invention is an isolated nucleic acid encoding an HCV polyprotein or a fragment thereof wherein the HCV polyprotein comprises the consensus sequence 1b (SEQ ID NO: 2). In one embodiment, the invention is a nucleic acid wherein the encoded HCV polyprotein or fragment thereof comprises one or more of the non-synonymous changes shown in Table 6.
In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV protein having the amino acid sequence comprising the consensus sequence 1a (SEQ ID NO:1) or a fragment thereof. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV protein having the amino acid sequence comprising the consensus sequence 1b (SEQ ID NO:2) or a fragment thereof. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV 1a core protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 5. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV 1a E1 protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 5. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV 1a E2 protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 5. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV 1a p7 protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 5. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV 1a NS2 protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 5. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV 1a NS3 protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 5. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV 1a NS4a protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 5. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV 1a NS4b protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 5. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV 1a NS5a protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 5. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV 1a NS5b protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 5.
In yet another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV 1b core protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 6. In another aspect, the invention is an HCV 1b E1 protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 6. In another aspect, the invention is an HCV 1b E2 protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 6. In another aspect, the invention is an HCV 1b p7 protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 6. In another aspect, the invention is an HCV 1b NS2 protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 6. In another aspect, the invention is an HCV 1b NS3 protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 6. In another aspect, the invention is an HCV 1b NS4a protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 6. In another aspect, the invention is an HCV 1b NS4b protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 6. In another aspect, the invention is an HCV 1b NS5a protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 6. In another aspect, the invention is an HCV 1b NS5b protein sequence or fragments thereof comprising the consensus sequence or non-synonymous changes as shown in Table 6. In another aspect, the invention is an consensus protein which comprises at least 5 contiguous amino acids of a hepatitis C 1a virus.
The invention also provides for an isolated expression construct comprising the following operably linked elements: transcription promoter and a nucleic acid encoding an HCV consensus protein or a fragment thereof. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated consensus protein or fragment thereof from Hepatitis C 1a virus which is immunogenic. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated consensus protein which comprises at least 5 contiguous amino acids of a hepatitis C 1b virus. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated expression construct comprising the following operably linked elements: transcription promoter and a nucleic acid encoding the consensus protein of claim 30 or a fragment thereof. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated consensus protein or fragment thereof from Hepatitis C 1b virus which is immunogenic. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated nucleic acid encoding an HCV epitope capable of eliciting an immunogenic response in an individual wherein the sequence of the epitope is selected from any of the epitopes listed in Table 7. In another aspect, the invention is an isolated HCV epitope capable of eliciting an immunogenic response in an individual wherein the sequence of the epitope is selected from any of the epitopes listed in Table 7.
The invention also provides for composition comprising at least one HCV protein or a fragment thereof encoded by a polynucleotide. In another aspect, the invention is a composition comprising at least one HCV protein or a fragment thereof encoded by a polynucleotide. In another aspect, the invention is a composition comprising at least one HCV protein or a fragment thereof. In another aspect, the invention is a composition comprising at least one nucleic acid sequence for HCV consensus sequence. In another aspect, the invention is a composition comprising at least one nucleic acid sequence for HCV consensus sequence. In another aspect, the invention is a composition comprising at least one nucleic acid sequence which codes for an HCV protein or a fragment thereof.
The invention also provides for a vaccine comprising all or a portion of consensus sequence 1a (SEQ ID NO:1). In one embodiment, the vaccine comprises a non-synonymous change at a modal consensus sequence. In another aspect, the invention is a vaccine comprising all or a portion of consensus sequence 1b (SEQ ID NO:2). In one embodiment, the vaccine comprises wherein there is a non-synonymous change at a modal consensus sequence.
The invention also provides for a method of identifying an immunogen for use as a vaccine comprising: a) Obtaining a sequence of HCV that is derived from a subject and is longer than 500 nucleotides; b) Obtaining the primary open reading frame of the sequence; c) Removing sequences that contain more than 1% ambiguous sites or more than 1 frameshift; d) Converting terminal “gap” characters to “missing”; e) Removing sequences that are redundant by identifying identical sequences and checking related publications and removing linked sequences; f) Generating predicted polyprotein sequences by using standard eukaryotic genetic code; and g) Identifying majority-rule consensus sequence for each subtype to identify modal amino acid residue at each site.
The invention also provides for a method of inducing or augmenting an immune response against hepatitis C virus comprising administering an effective amount of any one of the vaccines recited disclosed herein. The invention also provides for a method for protecting an individual from hepatitis C virus infection comprising administering an effective amount of any one of the vaccines disclosed herein. The invention also provides for a method of lessening the probability that a HCV-infected individual will enter a chronic phase of hepatitis C infection comprising administering an effective amount of any one of the vaccine disclosed herein.
The invention also provides for a method for diagnosing an individual infected with hepatitis C virus 1a comprising: a. obtaining a biological sample from the individual and b. using PCR primers to consensus sequences of HCV 1a to amplify nucleic acids in the biological sample to determine if the individual has been infected with hepatitis C virus 1a. The invention also provides for a method for diagnosing an individual infected with hepatitis C virus 1b comprising: a. obtaining a biological sample from the individual and b. using PCR primers to consensus sequences of HCV 1b to amplify nucleic acids in the biological sample to determine if the individual has been infected with hepatitis C virus 1b. The invention also provides for a kit comprising a HCV vaccine and instructions for the administration thereof.
The invention provides consensus sequences for HCV 1a sub-genotype (or subtype) and HCV 1b subtype. The invention further provides details on which residues of the consensus sequence have known amino acids substitutions. In addition, the invention further provides epitopes useful for inducing immune responses to HCV. The consensus sequence, its variants, and epitopes provides for vaccines for prophylaxis against and treatment of chronic HCV infection. The vaccines further provide a method for inducing an immune response against HCV. Further, the invention provides methods for preventing an individual's entrance into a chronic phase of HCV. The invention also provides methods of diagnosis of HCV 1a and 1b. The invention further provides for kits for use in prophylaxis and treatment of HCV.
All scientific and technical terms used in this application have meanings commonly used in the art unless otherwise specified. As used in this application, the following words or phrases have the meanings specified.
An “B cell epitope” is a term well-understood in the art and means any chemical moiety which exhibits specific binding to an antibody. An “epitope” can also comprise an antigen, which is a moiety or molecule that contains an epitope, and, as such, also specifically binds to antibody.
A “T cell epitope” means a component or portion thereof for which a T cell has an antigen-specific specific binding site, the result of binding to which activates the T cell.
The terms “polynucleotide” and “nucleic acid”, used interchangeably herein, refer to a polymeric form of nucleotides of any length, either ribonucleotides or deoxyribonucleotides. These terms include a single-, double- or triple-stranded DNA, genomic DNA, cDNA, RNA, DNA-RNA hybrid, or a polymer comprising purine and pyrimidine bases, or other natural, chemically, biochemically modified, non-natural or derivatized nucleotide bases.
An “individual” is a vertebrate, preferably a mammal, more preferably a human. Mammals include, but are not limited to, farm animals, sport animals, pets, primates, mice and rats.
A “biological sample” encompasses a variety of sample types obtained from an individual and can be used in a diagnostic or monitoring assay. The definition encompasses blood and other liquid samples of biological origin, solid tissue samples such as a biopsy specimen or tissue cultures or cells derived therefrom, and the progeny thereof. The definition also includes samples that have been manipulated in any way after their procurement, such as by treatment with reagents, solubilization, or enrichment for certain components, such as proteins or polynucleotides. The term “biological sample” encompasses a clinical sample, and also includes cells in culture, cell supernatants, cell lysates, serum, plasma, biological fluid, and tissue samples.
As used herein, the singular form “a”, “an”, and “the” includes plural references unless indicated otherwise. For example, “an” epitope includes one or more epitopes.
Consensus Sequences
Hepatitis C virus mutates rapidly and has two to three times more genetic variability than HIV. Hepatitis C reproduces more than 100 billion times a day, about 100 times faster than HIV. The inventors have discovered that instead of random changes, as conventional wisdom surmised, the HCV changes in a “Darwinian” manner. That is, the viral genome changes in a way to make the virus more reproductively fit in the face of each individual immune system it encounters. The inventors have discovered that the HCV genome changed in a manner to evade the individual's immune system in regions subject to effective T cell immune responses; and in regions where there was no effective T cell response due to lack of HLA epitopes, the HCV genome naturally mutated toward a consensus sequence which was the viruses' most replicatively fit state.
The HCV polyprotein is expressed as a single open reading frame, and is then processed by host (structural genes through the p7/NS2 junction) and viral (remainder) proteases. The structure and numbering of the positions in the HCV genome and polyprotein are based by convention on the subtype 1a genome, as described at the Los Alamos National Laboratory HCV sequence database web site (URL:http://hcv.lanl.gov/content/hcv-db/MAP/landmark.html) and in a recent publication (see Simmonds P, et al. Hepatology 2005; 42:962-73). HCV 1a core protein spans residues 1 to 191. E1 protein spans residues 192 to 383. E2 protein spans residues 384 to 746. p7 protein spans residues 747 to 809. NS2 protein spans residues 810 to 1026. NS3 protein spans residues 1027 to 1657. NS4a protein spans residues 1658 to 1711. NS4b protein spans residues 1712 to 1972. NS5a spans residues 1973 to 2420. NS5b protein spans residues 2421 to 3011. For HCV 1b subtype, there is an insertion at residue 2413 of an additional residue relative to the consensus 1a sequence.
Determination of a Consensus Sequence
To determine a consensus sequence from any genotype of HCV, or other viruses, one method that can be used is as follows: a) Obtain a sequence of HCV or the virus of interest that is derived from a subject (e.g., a human) and is longer than 500 nucleotides; b) Obtain the primary open reading frame of the sequence; c) Remove sequences that contain more than 1% ambiguous sites or more than 1 frameshift; d) Convert terminal “gap” characters to “missing”; e) Remove sequences that are redundant by identifying identical sequences and checking related publications and removing linked sequences; f) Generate predicted polyprotein sequences by using standard eukaryotic genetic code; and g) Identify majority-rule consensus sequence for each subtype to identify modal amino acid residue at each site.
The methodology disclosed herein is for obtaining consensus sequences and is not the same methodology used for obtaining ancestral sequences or center of tree (COT) sequences. However, for balanced (i.e., star-like) phylogeny like that seen for HCV, all three methodologies could yield the same end result. For commentary on general consensus and ancestral states as applied to HIV, see Science Vol. 29, pp. 1515-1518 (2003). However, the methodology disclosed herein provides advantages in that it is far more straightforward to use than previously disclosed methods and can be used with the entire data set for HCV, which has never been done before.
As detailed in the Examples, by using the methodology disclosed herein consensus sequence 1a (SEQ ID NO: 1) (
Polypeptides of HCV Consensus Sequences
The invention also provides for consensus sequences for the entire HCV polyprotein as well as for each HCV protein that has been processed by host or viral proteases. These HCV proteins include: core, E1, E2, p7, NS2, NS3, NS4a, NS4b, NS5a, and NS5b. One aspect of the invention contemplates the entire HCV polyprotein while other aspects of the invention contemplate the HCV proteins post-processing. The invention encompasses HCV proteins with non-synonymous changes as well as heterologous polypeptides.
The invention further provides a number of epitopes that have been found to be immunogenic (i.e., capable of inducing an immune response). These epitopes are disclosed in Table 7. As detailed in the Examples, some of these epitopes have been mapped systemically and found to be immunogenic. HCV has been found to mutate more frequently in the areas which comprise T cell epitopes than in areas which are not within T cell epitopes. Individuals who self-recovered from HCV infection had no changes in the sequences in the T cell epitope areas while those who progressed to chronic infection had one or more changes within the T cell epitopes. Further, in those chronically infected individuals with changes outside the T cell epitopes, many of the substitutions resulted in an amino acid that matched the consensus sequence. B cell epitopes are contained within the consensus sequences disclosed herein. Accordingly, the invention encompasses T cell epitopes as well as B cells epitopes. Accordingly, the invention encompasses polypeptides comprising these epitopes and heterologous polypeptides comprising these epitopes.
The invention also encompasses polypeptides which are fusion proteins. A fusion protein is a single polypeptide comprising regions from two or more different proteins. The regions normally exist in separate proteins and are brought together in the fusion protein. They may be linked together so that the amino acid sequence of one begins where the amino acid sequence of the other ends, or they may be linked via linker amino acids which are not normally a part of the constituent proteins. A fusion protein may contain more than one copy of any of its constituent proteins. The constituent proteins may include the entire amino acid sequences of the proteins or portions of the amino acid sequences. In one embodiment, the fusion protein of this invention are two or more HCV proteins (e.g., core, E1, E2, p7, NS2, NS3, NS4a, NS4b, NS5a, and NS5b) or fragments thereof brought together as a fusion protein. The HCV proteins can contain substitutions at various residue positions as disclosed in Tables 5 and 6. In another embodiment, a fusion protein is made from two or more epitopes disclosed herein. The epitopes can be a combination of different T cell epitopes or a combination of B cell epitopes or a combination of both T cell and B cell epitopes.
A vector can include nucleic acid coding for the fusion protein of the invention in a form suitable for expression of the nucleic acid in a host cell. Preferably the recombinant expression vector includes one or more regulatory sequences operatively linked to the nucleic acid sequence to be expressed. The term “regulatory sequence” includes promoters, enhancers and other expression control elements (e.g., polyadenylation signals). Regulatory sequences include those that direct constitutive expression of a nucleotide sequence, as well as tissue-specific regulatory and/or inducible sequences. The design of the expression vector can depend on such factors as the choice of the host cell to be transformed, the level of expression of protein desired, and the like. The expression vectors of the invention can be introduced into host cells to thereby produce proteins or polypeptides, including fusion proteins or polypeptides, encoded by nucleic acids as described herein.
The recombinant expression vectors of the invention can be designed for expression of the fusion proteins of the invention in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells. For example, polypeptides of the invention can be expressed in E. coli, insect cells (e.g., using baculovirus expression vectors), yeast cells, mammalian cells in culture, or in transgenic animals. Suitable host cells are discussed further in Goeddel, Gene Expression Technology: Methods in Enzymology 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990). Alternatively, the recombinant expression vector can be transcribed and translated in vitro, for example using T7 promoter regulatory sequences and T7 polymerase.
Expression of proteins in prokaryotes is most often carried out in E. coli with vectors containing constitutive or inducible promoters directing the expression of either fusion or non-fusion proteins. Fusion vectors add a number of amino acids to a protein encoded therein, usually to the amino terminus of the recombinant protein. Such fusion vectors typically serve three purposes: 1) to increase expression of recombinant protein; 2) to increase the solubility of the recombinant protein; and 3) to aid in the purification of the recombinant protein by acting as a ligand in affinity purification. Often, a proteolytic cleavage site is introduced at the junction of the fusion moiety and the recombinant protein to enable separation of the recombinant protein from the fusion moiety subsequent to purification of the fusion protein. Such enzymes, and their cognate recognition sequences, include Factor Xa, thrombin and enterokinase. Typical fusion expression vectors include pGEX (Pharmacia Biotech Inc; Smith, D. B. and Johnson, K. S. (1988) Gene 67:31-40), pMAL (New England Biolabs, Beverly, Mass.) and pRIT5 (Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.) which fuse glutathione S-transferase (GST), maltose E binding protein, or protein A, respectively, to the target recombinant protein.
A way to maximize recombinant protein expression in E. coli is to express the protein in host bacteria with an impaired capacity to proteolytically cleave the recombinant protein (Gottesman, S., Gene Expression Technology: Methods in Enzymology 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990) 119-128). Another strategy is to alter the nucleic acid sequence of the nucleic acid to be inserted into an expression vector so that the individual codons for each amino acid are those preferentially utilized in E. coli (Wada et al., (1992) Nucleic Acids Res. 20:2111-2118). Such alteration of nucleic acid sequences of the invention can be carried out by standard DNA synthesis techniques.
The fusion protein expression vector can also be a yeast expression vector, a vector for expression in insect cells, e.g., a baculovirus expression vector or a vector suitable for expression in mammalian cells in culture, or in transgenic animals. When used in mammalian cells, the expression vector's control functions are often provided by viral regulatory elements. For example, commonly used promoters are derived from polyoma, Adenovirus 2, cytomegalovirus and Simian Virus 40.
In another embodiment, the recombinant mammalian expression vector is capable of directing expression of the nucleic acid preferentially in a particular cell type (e.g., tissue-specific regulatory elements are used to express the nucleic acid). Non-limiting examples of suitable tissue-specific promoters include the albumin promoter (liver-specific; Pinkert et al. (1987) Genes Dev. 1:268-277), lymphoid-specific promoters (Calame and Eaton (1988) Adv. Immunol. 43:235-275), in particular promoters of T cell receptors (Winoto and Baltimore (1989) EMBO J. 8:729-733) and iimmunoglobulins (Banerji et al. (1983) Cell 33:729-740; Queen and Baltimore (1983) Cell 33:741-748), neuron-specific promoters (e.g., the neurofilament promoter; Byrne and Ruddle (1989) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:5473-5477), pancreas-specific promoters (Edlund et al. (1985) Science 230:912-916), and mammary gland-specific promoters (e.g., milk whey promoter; U.S. Pat. No. 4,873,316 and European Application Publication No. 264,166). Developmentally-regulated promoters are also encompassed, for example, the murine hox promoters (Kessel and Gruss (1990) Science 249:374-379) and the α-fetoprotein promoter (Campes and Tilghman (1989) Genes Dev. 3:537-546).
A “host cell” includes an individual cell or cell culture which can be or has been a recipient for vector(s) or for incorporation of polynucleotide molecules and/or proteins. A host cell can be any prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell. For example, fusion proteins of the invention can be expressed in bacterial cells such as E. coli, insect cells, yeast or mammalian cells (such as Chinese hamster ovary cells (CHO) or COS cells). Other suitable host cells are known to those skilled in the art. Host cells include progeny of a single host cell, and the progeny may not necessarily be completely identical (in morphology or in genomic of total DNA complement) to the original parent cell due to natural, accidental, or deliberate mutation. A host cell includes cells transfected in vivo with a polynucleotide(s) of this invention.
Polynucleotides Encoding the HCV Consensus Sequences
The invention also encompasses polynucleotides encoding the HCV consensus sequences or fragments thereof. Polynucleotides coding for the epitopes disclosed herein are also encompassed by the invention. Polynucleotides coding for heterologous polypeptides and for fusion proteins are also encompassed by this invention.
The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of molecular biology (including recombinant techniques), microbiology, cell biology, biochemistry and immunology, which are within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature, such as, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, second edition (Sambrook et al., 1989) Cold Spring Harbor Press; Oligonucleotide Synthesis (M. J. Gait, ed., 1984); Animal Cell Culture (R. I. Freshney), ed., 1987); Methods in Enzymology (Academic Press, Inc.); Handbook of Experimental Immunology (D. M. Weir & C. C. Blackwell, eds.); Gene Transfer Vectors for Mammalian Cells (J. M. Miller & M. P. Calos, eds., 1987); Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (F. M. Ausubel et al., eds., 1987); PCR: The Polymerase Chain Reaction, (Mullis et al., eds., 1994); Current Protocols in Immunology (J. E. Coligan et al., eds., 1991) and Short Protocols in Molecular Biology (Wiley and Sons, 1999).
The invention further provides isolated polynucleotides that encode a HCV consensus sequence or fragments thereof, as well as vectors comprising the polynucleotide and a host cell containing the vector. Such expression systems can be used in a method of producing an HCV consensus sequence polypeptide or fragments thereof, wherein the host cell is cultured and the polypeptide produced by the cultured host cell is recovered. Polynucleotides encoding consensus sequences of the invention can also be delivered to a host subject for expression of the consensus sequence by cells of the host subject.
Polynucleotides complementary to any such sequences are also encompassed by the present invention. Polynucleotides may be single-stranded (coding or antisense) or double-stranded, and may be DNA (genomic, cDNA or synthetic) or RNA molecules. RNA molecules include HnRNA molecules, which contain introns and correspond to a DNA molecule in a one-to-one manner, and mRNA molecules, which do not contain introns. Additional coding or non-coding sequences may, but need not, be present within a polynucleotide of the present invention, and a polynucleotide may, but need not, be linked to other molecules and/or support materials.
Polynucleotides may comprise the consensus sequence (or a fragment thereof) or may comprise a variant of such a sequence. Polynucleotide variants contain one or more substitutions, additions, deletions and/or insertions such that the immunoreactivity of the encoded polypeptide is not diminished, relative to the original immunoreactive molecule. The effect on the immunoreactivity of the encoded polypeptide may generally be assessed as described herein. Polynucleotide variants preferably exhibit at least about 70% identity, more preferably at least about 80% identity and most preferably at least about 90% identity to a polynucleotide sequence that encodes the HCV consensus sequences disclosed herein or a fragment thereof.
Two polynucleotide or polypeptide sequences are said to be “identical” if the sequence of nucleotides or amino acids in the two sequences is the same when aligned for maximum correspondence as described below. Comparisons between two sequences are typically performed by comparing the sequences over a comparison window to identify and compare local regions of sequence similarity. A “comparison window” as used herein, refers to a segment of at least about 5 contiguous positions, at least about 10 contiguous positions, at least about 15 contiguous positions, or at least about 20 contiguous positions in which a sequence may be compared to a reference sequence of the same number of contiguous positions after the two sequences are optimally aligned.
Optimal alignment of sequences for comparison may be conducted using the Megalign program in the Lasergene suite of bioinformatics software (DNASTAR, Inc., Madison, Wis.), using default parameters. This program embodies several alignment schemes described in the following references: Dayhoff, M. O. (1978) A model of evolutionary change inproteins—Matrices for detecting distant relationships. In Dayhoff, M. O. (ed.) Atlas of protein Sequence and Structure, National Biomedical Research Foundation, Washington D.C. Vol. 5, Suppl. 3, pp. 345-358; Hein J., 1990, Unified Approach to Alignment and Phylogenes pp. 626-645 Methods in Enzymology vol. 183, Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, Calif.; Higgins, D. G. and Sharp, P. M., 1989, CABIOS 5:151-153; Myers, E. W. and Muller W., 1988, CABIOS 4:11-17; Robinson, E. D., 1971, Comb. Theor. 11:105; Santou, N., Nes, M., 1987, Mol. Biol. Evol. 4:406-425; Sneath, P. H. A. and Sokal, R. R., 1973, Numerical Taxonomy the Principles and Practice of Numerical Taxonomy, Freeman Press, San Francisco, Calif.; Wilbur, W. J. and Lipman, D. J., 1983, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80:726-730.
Preferably, the “percentage of sequence identity” is determined by comparing two optimally aligned sequences over a window of comparison of at least 5 positions, wherein the portion of the polynucleotide or polypeptide sequence in the comparison window may comprise additions or deletions (i.e., gaps) of 20 percent or less, usually 5 to 15 percent, or 10 to 12 percent, as compared to the reference sequences (which does not comprise additions or deletions) for optimal alignment of the two sequences. The percentage is calculated by determining the number of positions at which the identical nucleic acid bases or amino acid residue occurs in both sequences to yield the number of matched positions, dividing the number of matched positions by the total number of positions in the reference sequence (i.e., the window size) and multiplying the results by 100 to yield the percentage of sequence identity.
Polynucleotides may be prepared using any of a variety of techniques known in the art. The nucleic acid sequence that encodes for the HCV consensus sequences disclosed herein may be obtained from publicly available databases (e.g., GenBank) or from reverse translation from the amino acid sequence of the HCV consensus sequence. Although hepatitis C virus is a RNA virus, DNA sequences (including cDNA) that code for the HCV consensus sequences are also encompassed by this invention. Such nucleic acid sequences can also be obtained as part of a genomic library or a cDNA library. Screening the cDNA or genomic library with the selected probe may be conducted using standard procedures, such as those described in Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989.
Polynucleotides, polynucleotide variants, and whole viruses may generally be prepared by any method known in the art, including chemical synthesis by, for example, solid phase phosphoramidite chemical synthesis. Modifications in a polynucleotide sequence may also be introduced using standard mutagenesis techniques, such as oligonucleotide-directed site-specific mutagenesis (see Adelman et al., DNA 2:183, 1983). Alternatively, RNA molecules may be generated by in vitro or in vivo transcription of DNA sequences encoding an antibody, or portion thereof, provided that the DNA is incorporated into a vector with a suitable RNA polymerase promoter (such as T7 or SP6). Certain portions may be used to prepare an encoded polypeptide, as described herein. In addition, or alternatively, a portion may be administered to an individual such that the encoded polypeptide is generated in vivo (e.g., by transfecting antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells, with a cDNA construct encoding the polypeptide, and administering the transfected cells to the individual).
Any polynucleotide may be further modified to increase stability in vivo. Possible modifications include, but are not limited to, the addition of flanking sequences at the 5′ and/or 3′ ends; the use of phosphorothioate or 2′O-methyl rather than phosphodiesterase linkages in the backbone; and/or the inclusion of nontraditional bases such as inosine, queosine and wybutosine, as well as acetyl-, methyl-, thio- and other modified forms of adenine, cytidine, guanine, thymine and uridine.
Nucleotide sequences can be joined to a variety of other nucleotide sequences using established recombinant DNA techniques. For example, a polynucleotide may be cloned into any of a variety of cloning vectors, including plasmids, phagemids, lambda phage derivatives and cosmids. Vectors of particular interest include expression vectors, replication vectors, probe generation vectors and sequencing vectors. In general, a vector will contain an origin of replication functional in at least one organism, convenient restriction endonuclease sites and one or more selectable markers. Other elements will depend upon the desired use, and will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art.
Within certain embodiments, polynucleotides may be formulated so as to permit entry into a cell of a mammal, and to permit expression therein. Such formulations can be particularly useful for therapeutic purposes, for example for treating HCV infection or as a prophylaxis. In one embodiment, the invention encompasses an expression construct for expressing any portion of the consensus sequence will contain the following operably linked elements: a transcription promoter, a nucleic acid encoding all or some fragment of the consensus sequences and its possible variants disclosed herein, and a transcription terminator. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that there are many ways to achieve expression of a polynucleotide in a target cell, and any suitable method may be employed. For example, a polynucleotide may be incorporated into a viral vector such as, but not limited to, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus, retrovirus, or vaccinia or other pox virus (e.g., avian pox virus). Techniques for incorporating DNA into such vectors are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. A retroviral vector may additionally transfer or incorporate a gene for a selectable marker (to aid in the identification or selection of transduced cells) and/or a targeting moiety, such as a gene that encodes a ligand for a receptor on a specific target cell, to render the vector target specific. Targeting may also be accomplished using an antibody, by methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art.
Additional methods of expression for vaccine purposes are disclosed below. Other formulations for therapeutic purposes include colloidal dispersion systems, such as macromolecule complexes, nanocapsules, microspheres, beads, and lipid-based systems including oil-in-water emulsions, micelles, mixed micelles, and liposomes. A preferred colloidal system for use as a delivery vehicle in vitro and in vivo is a liposome (i.e., an artificial membrane vesicle). The preparation and use of such systems is well known in the art.
Uses for Consensus Sequences
The invention provides for many uses for the consensus sequences disclosed herein. In one aspect, an isolated consensus protein with the sequences disclosed herein is used as a vaccine for prophylactic and treatment purposes. In another aspect, the invention provides for the uses of HCV epitopes disclosed herein to induce or augment an immune response in an individual. In another aspect, the invention is a composition comprising at least one HCV 1a or 1b consensus protein or a fragment thereof. In yet another aspect, the invention is a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least one HCV 1a or 1b consensus protein or a fragment thereof and a suitable carrier. It is understood that this invention not only encompasses polypeptides comprising the consensus sequences but also polynucleotides coding for the polypeptides.
The consensus sequences disclosed herein can be used in its entirety or as fragments. In one embodiment, the consensus sequence comprises at least one HCV protein (e.g., core, E1, E2, p7, NS2, NS3, NS4a, NS4b, NS5a, or NS5b) or a fragment thereof. In another embodiment, the consensus protein fragment has at least 5 contiguous amino acids of either HCV 1a or HCV1b virus. In another embodiment, the consensus protein fragment has least 8 contiguous amino acids of either HCV 1a or HCV1b virus. In other embodiments, the consensus protein fragment has least 11, at least 14, at least 17, at least 20, at least 23, at least 27, at least 30, at least 33, at least 36, at least 39, at least 42, at least 45, at least 48, or at least 51 contiguous amino acids of either HCV 1a or HCV1b virus.
As the HCV mutates, the invention provided herein teaches one of skill in the art how to predict changes in the sequence. Since some of the residues have several variants, the teachings herein on the precise amino acid and the frequency with which was observed allows one of skill in the art to practice the invention without undue experimentation.
Pharmaceutical Compositions
The invention encompasses pharmaceutical compositions comprising HCV consensus sequence proteins or fragments thereof and polynucleotides encoding the same. In addition to the HCV consensus protein (or polynucleotide), the pharmaceutical composition includes a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients are known in the art, and are relatively inert substances that facilitate administration of a pharmacologically effective substance. For example, an excipient can give form or consistency, or act as a diluent. Suitable excipients include but are not limited to stabilizing agents, wetting and emulsifying agents, salts for varying osmolarity, encapsulating agents, buffers, and skin penetration enhancers. Excipients as well as formulations for parenteral and nonparenteral drug delivery are set forth in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences 19th Ed. Mack Publishing (1995). Generally, these compositions are formulated for administration by injection (e.g., intraperitoneally, intravenously, subcutaneously, intramuscularly, etc.). Accordingly, these compositions are preferably combined with pharmaceutically acceptable vehicles such as saline, Ringer's solution, dextrose solution, and the like.
Vaccines Using HCV Consensus Sequences
Several general approaches exist for making a vaccine against a virus that mutates rapidly and has multiple subtypes around the world. From an efficiency perspective, it would be ideal to be able to make one vaccine that could be effective against the same virus, even if it has mutated as it is transmitted from person to person. One general approach is to use isolates of a particular subtype to make the vaccine. However, because it is likely that each geographical area will have mutations that are clustered and make the virus phylogenetically a different clade, the isolate approach is not economically viable because country-specific vaccine efforts would be needed. Another approach, using the consensus sequence instead of the actual sequence isolated from within the infected population, has the advantages of being central and having the potential to induce or augment cross-reactive responses in infected individuals. Other considerations when making a vaccine also include whether the protein should be polyvalent or to target specific types of valencies, for example, in HIV, designing modified envelopes to enhance exposure of epitopes known to be capable of inducing broadly neutralizing antibodies. See, for example, Gaschen at el. Science 296: 2354-2360 (2002).
Use of a consensus sequence as a vaccine for HCV should take into account considerations that would stimulate responses that drive the virus to mutate to a less fit state, thereby rendering it less able to replicate, and easier to eradicate. Such considerations include co-receptor usage (if any), protein folding, and exposure of antigenic or immunogenic domains. Selection of a consensus sequence for use as a vaccine against HCV would elicit both T cell and/or B cell responses in such way to engage the immune system to eradicate the existing HCV in the infected individual.
The vaccines of the invention comprise HCV consensus sequence or a fragment thereof or a polynucleotide encoding HCV consensus sequence or a fragment thereof. For instance, the vaccine may comprise or encode the HCV polyprotein, the primary translation product, or the full-length translation product of the HCV consensus sequence. In another embodiment, the vaccine comprises the processed HCV proteins or fragments thereof. In addition to the use of consensus sequence proteins (or polynucleotides encoding those proteins), polypeptides comprising fragments of HCV consensus sequence, or polynucleotides encoding fragments of HCV consensus sequence may be used in the vaccines. The polypeptides in the vaccines or encoded by polynucleotides of the vaccines are optionally at least about 99%, at least about 95%, at least about 90%, at least about 85%, at least about 80%, at least about 75%, at least about 70%, at least about 65%, at least about 60%, at least about 55%, or at least about 50% identical to the HCV consensus sequence disclosed herein.
In addition, the polynucleotides of the vaccines are optionally at least about 99%, at least about 95%, at least about 90%, at least about 85%, at least about 80%, at least about 75%, at least about 70%, at least about 65%, at least about 60%, at least about 55%, or at least about 50% identical to the polynucleotides encoding the HCV consensus sequence disclosed herein.
Delivery/Expression Systems
The HCV consensus sequence vaccines can be delivered to the individual using various expression systems. A few of the possible systems are described below.
1. Mammalian Cell-Based Delivery Systems
In one embodiment of the invention, the immunogenic composition comprises a cell. The cell of the immunogenic composition comprises a consensus sequence or epitope-containing polypeptide described herein or a polynucleotide encoding an epitope-containing polypeptide described herein. Prior to delivery of the cell to a host, the cell optionally comprises an epitope from the consensus sequence on its surface (for instance, as an HLA-bound peptide). In an alternative embodiment, the cell comprises an epitope-containing polypeptide described herein and/or a polynucleotide encoding a consensus sequence or epitope-containing polypeptide described herein in the interior of the cell. In one embodiment, the immunogenic composition comprising the consensus sequence or polynucleotide encoding the consensus sequence is an eukaryotic cell, such as a mammalian cell.
In another embodiment, the immunogenic composition comprises a mammalian cell which is an antigen-presenting cell. Antigen presenting cells, as referred to herein, express at least one class I or class II MHC determinant and may include those cells which are known as professional antigen-presenting cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells. Other professional antigen-presenting cells include monocytes, marginal zone Kupffer cells, microglia, Langerhans' cells, interdigitating dendritic cells, follicular dendritic cells, and T cells. Facultative antigen-presenting cells can also be used. Examples of facultative antigen-presenting cells include astrocytes, follicular cells, endothelium and fibroblasts. In one embodiment, the immunogenic composition comprises an antigen-presenting cell that affords MHC class I antigen presentation.
The polypeptides or polynucleotides of the invention may be delivered to cells in vivo or ex vivo. The loading of antigen onto antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells has been achieved by different methods, including peptide pulsing (see Melero et al., Gene Therapy 7:1167 (2000). This method for administering polypeptide vaccine is accomplished by pulsing the polypeptide onto an APC or dendritic cell in vitro. The polypeptide binds to MHC molecules on the surface of the APC or dendritic cell. Prior treatment of the APCs or dendritic cells with interferon-γ can be used to increase the number of MHC molecules on the APCs or dendritic cells. The pulsed cells can then be administered as a carrier for the polypeptide.
2. Yeast-Based Delivery Systems
In another embodiment of the invention, a consensus sequence or epitope-containing polypeptide described herein, or a polynucleotide encoding the consensus sequence or epitope-containing polypeptide, is delivered to a host organism in a vaccine comprising yeast. The use of live yeast DNA vaccine vectors for antigen delivery has been reviewed recently and reported to be efficacious in a mouse model using whole recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast expressing tumor or HIV-1 antigens (see Stubbs et al. (2001) Nature Medicine 7: 625-29).
The use of live yeast vaccine vectors is known in the art. Furthermore, U.S. Pat. No. 5,830,463 describes particularly useful vectors and systems for use in the instant invention. The use of yeast delivery systems may be particularly effective for use in the viral vaccine methods and formulations of the invention as yeast appear to trigger cell-mediated immunity without the need for an adjuvant. Possible yeast vaccine delivery systems are nonpathogenic yeast carrying at least one recombinant expression system capable of modulating an immune response. In an alternative, heat killed yeast may also be used to express the protein antigen of interest as part of a yeast-based delivery system (e.g., GlobeImmune products).
3. Bacterial Systems
In another embodiment, the cell that comprises the consensus sequence or epitope-containing polypeptide, or polynucleotide encoding the consensus sequence or epitope-containing polypeptide, is a microbial cell. In one embodiment, the microbial cell is a bacterium, typically a mutant or recombinant bacterium. The bacterium is optionally attenuated. For instance, a number of bacterial species have been studied for their potential use as vaccines and can be used in the present invention, including, but not limited to, Shigella flexneri, E. Coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella typhi or mycobacterium. In one embodiment, the bacterial vector used in the immunogenic composition is a facultative, intracellular bacteria vector. In one embodiment, the bacterium is used to deliver an epitope-containing polypeptide to antigen-presenting cells in the host organism.
The use of live bacterial vaccine vectors for antigen delivery has been reviewed (Medina and Guzman (2001) Vaccine 19: 1573-1580; and Darji et al. (2000) FEMS Immunol and Medical Microbiology 27: 341-9). Furthermore, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,261,568 and 6,488,926 describe particularly useful systems for use in this HCV vaccine invention.
The use of live bacterial vaccine vectors can be particularly advantageous. Bacteria-mediated gene transfer finds particular advantage in genetic vaccination by intramuscular, intradermal or oral administration of plasmids which leads to antigen expression in the mammalian host-thereby offering the possibility of both antigen modification as well as immune modulation. Furthermore, the bacterial-mediated DNA vaccine provides adjuvant effects and the ability to target inductive sites of the immune system. In preferred embodiments, S. typhimurium, S. typhi, S. flexneri or L. monocytogenes are used as vehicles for trans-kingdom DNA vaccine delivery.
Furthermore, many live bacterial vaccine vectors make use of the almost unlimited coding capacity of bacterial plasmids, and broad availability of bacterial expression vectors, to express virtually any target tumor antigen of interest. The use of bacterial carriers is often associated with still other significant benefits, such as the availability of convenient direct mucosal or oral delivery. Other direct mucosal delivery systems (besides live viral or bacterial vaccine carriers) include mucosal adjuvants, viral particles, ISCOMs, liposomes, microparticles and transgenic plants. Other advantages of this technology are: low batch preparation costs, facilitated technology transfer following development of the prototype, increased shelf-life and stability in the field respect to other formulations (e.g., subunit vaccines), easy administration and low delivery costs. Taken together, these advantages make this strategy particularly suitable for vaccine programs including HCV vaccines. The carrier operationally becomes an equivalent of a subunit recombinant vaccine.
Both attenuated and commensal microorganisms have been successfully used as carriers for vaccine antigens. Attenuated mucosal pathogens which may be used in the invention include: L. monocyotgenes, Salmonella spp., V. cholorae, Shigella spp., mycobacterium, Y. enterocolitica, and B. anthracis. Commensal strains for use in the invention include: S. gordonii, Lactobacillus spp., and Staphylococcus ssp. The background of the carrier strain used in the formulation, the type of mutation selected to achieve attenuation, and the intrinsic properties of the immunogen can be used in optimizing the extent and quality of the immune response elicited. The general factors to be considered to optimize the immune response stimulated by the bacterial carrier include carrier-related factors including: selection of the carrier; the specific background strain, the attenuating mutation and the level of attenuation; the stabilization of the attenuated phenotype and the establishment of the optimal dosage. Other considerations include antigen-related factors such as: instrinsic properties of the antigen; the expression system, antigen-display form and stabilization of the recombinant phenotype; co-expression of modulating molecules and vaccination schedules.
Descriptions of exemplary bacterial vaccine vectors follows, including references which demonstrate the availability in the art of the knowledge required to generate recombinant bacterial vaccine vectors that express the antigen of choice and can be used in immunogenic compositions. Each of the following references in incorporated herein in its entirety.
For instance, Salmonella typhimurium could be used as a bacterial vector in the immunogenic compositions of the invention. Use of this type of bacteria as an effective vector for a vaccine has been demonstrated in the art. For instance, the use of S. typhimurium as an attenuated vector for oral somatic transgene vaccination has been described (see Darji et al. (1997) Cell 91: 765-775; and Darji et al. (2000) FEMS Immun and Medical Microbiology 27:341-9). Indeed most knowledge on bacteria-mediated gene transfer has been acquired using attenuated S. typhimurium as carrier. Two metabolically attenuated strains that have been used include S. typhimurium aroA, which is unable to synthesize aromatic amino acids, and S. typhimurium 22-11, which is defective in purine metabolism. Several antigens have been expressed using these carriers: originally, listeriolysin and actA (two virulence factors of L. monocytogenes) and beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) of E. coli were successfully tested. Cytotoxic and helper T cells as well as specific antibodies could be detected against these antigens following oral application of a single dose of the recombinant salmonella. In addition, immunization with salmonella carrying a listeriolysin-encoding expression plasmid elicited a protective response against a lethal challenge with L. monocytogenes. Interestingly, this protection was observed in the lung although the vaccine was administered orally. Oral transgene vaccination methodology has now been extended to include protective responses in herpes simplex virus 2 and hepatitis B infection models, with cell-mediated immune responses detected at the mucosal level.
In another embodiment, the immunogenic compositions of the present invention optionally comprise Shigella flexneri as a delivery vehicle. S. flexneri represents the prototype of a bacterial DNA transfer vehicle as it escapes from the vacuole into the cytosol of the host cell. Several attenuated mutants have been used successfully to transfer DNA to cell lines in vitro. Auxotrophic strains were defective in cell-wall synthesis (see Sizemore et al. (1995) Science 270:299-302; and dapB (see Courvalin et al. (1995) C R Acad Sci Ser III, 318:1207-12), synthesis of aromatic amino acids (aroA (see Powell et al. (1996) Vaccines 96: Molecular Approaches to the Control of Infectious Disease; Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press) or synthesis of guanine nucleotides (guaBA (see Anderson et al. (2000) Vaccine 18: 2193-2202).
In still another embodiment, the immunogenic compositions of the present invention comprise Listeria monocytogenes (Portnoy et al, Journal of Cell Biology, 158:409-414 (2002); Glomski et al., Journal of Cell Biology, 156:1029-1038 (2002)). Strains of Listeria monocytogenes have recently been developed as effective intracellular delivery vehicles of heterologous proteins providing delivery of antigens to the immune system to induce an immune response to clinical conditions that do not permit injection of the disease-causing agent, such as cancer (U.S. Pat. No. 6,051,237 Paterson; Gunn et al., J. Immun. 167:6471-6479 (2001); Liau, et al., Cancer Research, 62: 2287-2293 (2002)) and HIV (U.S. Pat. No. 5,830,702 Portnoy & Paterson). A recombinant L. monocytogenes vaccine expressing a lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) antigen has also been shown to induce protective cell-mediated immunity to the antigen (Shen et al., PNAS, 92: 3987-3991 (1995). The ability of L. monocytogenes to serve as a vaccine vector has been reviewed (Wesikirch, et al., Immunol. Rev. 158:159-169 (1997)).
As a facultative intracellular bacterium, L. monocytogenes elicits both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses. Following entry of the Listeria into a cell of the host organism, the Listeria produces Listeria-specific proteins that enable it to escape from the phagolysosome of the engulfing host cell into the cytosol of that cell. Here, L. monocytogenes proliferates, expressing proteins necessary for survival, but also expressing heterologous genes operably linked to Listeria promoters. Presentation of peptides of these heterologous proteins on the surface of the engulfing cell by MHC proteins permits the development of a T cell response. Two integration vectors which are particularly useful for introducing heterologous genes into the bacteria for use as vaccines include pPL1 and pPL2 as described in Lauer et al., Journal of Bacteriology, 184: 4177-4186 (2002).
Attenuated forms of L. monocytogenes have been produced. The ActA protein of L. monocytogenes is sufficient to promote the actin recruitment and polymerization events responsible for intracellular movement. A human safety study has reported that administration of an actA/plcB-deleted attenuated form of Listeria monocytogenes caused no serious sequelae in adults (Angelakopoulos et al., Infection and Immunity, 70:3592-3601 (2002)).
Another possible delivery system is based on killed but metabolically active (KBMA) bacteria, that simultaneously takes advantage of the potency of live vaccines and the safety of killed vaccines. In these microbes, for example L. monocytogenes, genes required for nucleotide excision repair (uvrAB) are removed, rendering microbial-based vaccines exquisitely sensitive to photochemical inactivation with psoralen and long-wavelength ultraviolet light. Colony formation of the nucleotide excision repair mutants can be blocked by infrequent, randomly distributed psoralen crosslinks, but the bacterial population is still able to express its genes, synthesize and secrete proteins. See Brockstedt et al Nat. Med. 2005 August; 11(8):853-60 and US 2004/0197343 A1. Other systems that can be used include those taught in US 2004/0228877 A1, US 2005/0281783 A1, and US 2005/0249748 A1.
4. Viral-Based Delivery Systems
In another embodiment of the invention, the immunogenic composition comprising the consensus sequence or epitope-containing polypeptide and/or the polynucleotide encoding the consensus sequence or epitope-containing further comprises a viral vector. The viral vector will typically comprise a highly attenuated, non-replicative virus. Vaccinia variants, avipoxviruses, adenoviruses, polio viruses, influenza viruses, and herpes viruses can all be used as delivery vectors in conjunction with the present invention.
Formulations
Compositions comprising any of the consensus sequences described herein are also provided. In some embodiments, the compositions are pharmaceutical compositions. In some embodiments, the compositions are immunogenic compositions. The pharmaceutical compositions optionally comprise a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or adjuvant. In some embodiments, the compositions are vaccine compositions (i.e., vaccines). The vaccine compositions optionally comprise a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or adjuvant.
The vaccine compositions of the present invention can be used to stimulate an immune response in an individual. The formulations can be administered to an individual by a variety of administration routes. Methods of administration of such a vaccine composition are known in the art, and include oral, nasal, intravenous, intradermal, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, intralymphatic, percutaneous, scarification, and subcutaneous routes of administration, as well as intradermally by gene gun wherein gold particles coated with DNA may be used in the gene gun and any other route that is relevant for an infectious disease.
The vaccine compositions may further comprise additional components known in the art to improve the immune response to a vaccine, such as adjuvants, T cell co-stimulatory molecules, or antibodies, such as anti-CTLA4. The invention also includes medicaments comprising the pharmaceutical compositions of the invention. An individual to be treated with such vaccines, is any vertebrate, preferably a mammal, including domestic animals, sport animals, and primates, including humans. The vaccine can be administered as a prophylactic or for treatment purposes.
Vaccine formulations are known in the art. Known vaccine formulations can include one or more possible additives, such as carriers, preservatives, stabilizers, adjuvants, antibiotics, and other substances. Preservatives, such as thimerosal or 2-phenoxy ethanol, can be added to slow or stop the growth of bacteria or fungi resulting from inadvertent contamination, especially as might occur with vaccine vials intended for multiple uses or doses. Stabilizers, such as lactose or monosodium glutamate (MSG), can be added to stabilize the vaccine formulation against a variety of conditions, such as temperature variations or a freeze-drying process. Adjuvants, such as aluminum hydroxide or aluminum phosphate, are optionally added to increase the ability of the vaccine to trigger, enhance, or prolong an immune response. Additional materials, such as cytokines, chemokines, and bacterial nucleic acid sequences, like CpG, are also potential vaccine adjuvants. Antibiotics, such as neomycin and streptomycin, are optionally added to prevent the potentially harmful growth of germs. Vaccines may also include a suspending fluid such as sterile water or saline. Vaccines may also contain small amounts of residual materials from the manufacturing process, such as cell or bacterial proteins, egg proteins (from vaccines that are produced in eggs), DNA or RNA, or formaldehyde from a toxoiding process. Formulations may be re-suspended or diluted in a suitable diluent such as sterile water, saline, isotonic buffered saline (e.g. phosphate buffered to physiological pH), or other suitable diluent.
The consensus sequence vaccine is optionally administered to a host in a physiologically acceptable carrier. Optionally, the vaccine formulation further comprises an adjuvant. Useful carriers known to those of ordinary skill in the art include, e.g., citrate-bicarbonate buffer, buffered water, 0.4% saline, and the like. In some embodiments, the vaccine compositions are prepared as liquid suspensions. In other embodiments, the vaccine compositions comprising the consensus sequence strains are lyophilized (i.e., freeze-dried). The lyophilized preparation can then be combined with a sterile solution (e.g., citrate-bicarbonate buffer, buffered water, 0.4% saline, or the like) prior to administration.
Viral vectors can be used to administer polynucleotides encoding a polypeptide comprising one or more HCV consensus sequences or polynucleotides encoding a HCV epitope or any fragment thereof. Such viral vectors include vaccinia virus and avian viruses, such as Newcastle disease virus. Others may be used as are known in the art.
Naked DNA can be injected directly into the host to produce an immune response. Such naked DNA vaccines may be injected intramuscularly into human muscle tissue, or through transdermal or intradermal delivery of the vaccine DNA, typically using biolistic-mediate gene transfer (i.e., gene gun). Recent reviews describing the gene gun and muscle injection delivery strategies for DNA immunization include Tuting, Curr. Opin. Mol. Ther. (1999) 1: 216-25, Robinson, Int. J. Mol. Med. (1999) 4: 549-55, and Mumper and Ledbur, Mol. Biotechnol. (2001) 19: 79-95. Other possible methods for delivering plasmid DNA include electroporation and iontophoreses.
Another possible gene delivery system comprises ionic complexes formed between DNA and polycationic liposomes (see, e.g., Caplen et al. (1995) Nature Med. 1: 39). Held together by electrostatic interaction, these complexes may dissociate because of the charge screening effect of the polyelectrolytes in the biological fluid. A strongly basic lipid composition can stabilize the complex, but such lipids may be cytotoxic. Other possible methods for delivering DNA include electroporation and iontophoreses.
The use of intracellular and intercellular targeting strategies in DNA vaccines may further enhance the effect of HCV vaccine compositions. Previously, intracellular targeting strategies and intercellular spreading strategies have been used to enhance MHC class I or MHC class II presentation of antigen, resulting in potent CD8+ or CD4+ T cell-mediated antitumor immunity, respectively. For example, MHC class I presentation of a model antigen, HPV-16 E7, was enhanced using linkage of Mycobacterium tuberculosis heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) (Chen, et al., (2000), Cancer Research, 60: 1035-1042), calreticulin (Cheng, et al., (2001) J Clin Invest, 108:669-678) or the translocation domain (domain II) of Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A (ETA(dII)) (Hung, et al., (2001) Cancer Research, 61: 3698-3703) to E7 in the context of a DNA vaccine. To enhance MHC class II antigen processing, the sorting signals of the lysosome associated membrane protein (LAMP-1) have been linked to the E7 antigen, creating the Sig/E7/LAMP-1 chimera (Ji, et al, (1999), Human Gene Therapy, 10: 2727-2740).
To enhance further the potency of naked DNA vaccines, an intercellular strategy that facilitates the spread of antigen between cells can be used. This improves the potency of DNA vaccines as has been shown using herpes simplex virus (HSV-1) VP22, an HSV-1 tegument protein that has demonstrated the remarkable property of intercellular transport and is capable of distributing protein to many surrounding cells (Elliot, et al., (1997) Cell, 88: 223-233). Such enhanced intercellular spreading of linked protein, results in enhancement of HCV-specific CD8+ T cell-mediated immune responses and anti-HCV effect. Any such methods can be used to enhance DNA vaccine potency against HCV in an infected individual.
Prophylactic Vaccines Using HCV Consensus Sequences
The HCV consensus sequence taught herein can also be used as a vaccine prophylactically, i.e., lessening the symptoms associated with HCV in an individual who is infected with HCV. In one embodiment, an individual is preventing from contracting HCV. The vaccine compositions of the invention are administered to an individual who is not infected with HCV. By its ability to induce or augment an effective immune response, the vaccine mollifies the dangers of becoming infected with HCV. The individual should be given an amount effective to induce or augment effective immune responses, which can be measured using the assays detailed in the Examples section. The invention discloses epitopes which are immunogenic in individuals with certain MHC haplotypes. Thus, depending on the MHC haplotype of the individual, a customized vaccine may also be made if desired. Even if the individual does not have matching MHC haplotype, the advantage of using consensus sequence as a vaccine is that it has the potential for cross reactivity. In another embodiment, the individual has been exposed to ACV experiences a lessening of the symptoms associated with HCV. In this case, the individual is monitored by a physician or another individual suitably trained to monitor the progression of HCV infection. As disclosed above, symptoms associated with HCV include jaundice, fatigue, dark urine, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, and nausea, liver disease, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Physicians can monitor the individuals for the presence and level of HCV (e.g., by RNA levels) to assess the individual's responses to vaccination.
Methods of Treating HCV-Infected Individuals
The invention provides methods for treating individuals infected with HCV. Using the compositions comprising HCV consensus sequences disclosed herein, individuals who are infected with HCV can be treated by administering an effective amount of the composition. An effective amount is an amount that is sufficient to stimulate an immune response. The immune response can be monitored by using the assays disclosed in the Examples or any other standard measure of immune response (e.g., measuring antibodies, cytokine levels, activation markers on immune cells, etc.) Optionally, the levels of HCV can be measured by standard assays known to one of ordinary skill in the art. In one embodiment, the administration of a composition comprising HCV consensus sequences (e.g., a vaccine) will stimulate T cell and/or B cell response. The stimulation of an immune response will serve to eradicate circulating HCV in the individual.
In some embodiments, the administration of one or more HCV consensus sequence proteins or a fragment thereof is capable of inducing an immune response in a host animal. In one embodiment, the immune response is a cell-mediated immune response. In one embodiment, the effective immune response induced or augmented by the one or more HCV consensus sequence proteins or a fragment thereof comprises a T cell response, such as a CD4+ T cell response or a CD8+ T cell response, or both.
These immune cell responses can be measured by both in vitro and in vivo methods to determine if the immune response involved in the present invention is effective. Efficacy can be determined by comparing these measurements for those to whom have received treatment to those who have received no treatment. Another alternative to compare the measurements of an individual before treatment with his/her measurements after treatment. One possibility is to measure the presentation of the HCV consensus protein or consensus epitope of interest by an antigen-presenting cell. The HCV consensus protein or consensus epitope of interest may be mixed with a suitable antigen presenting cell or cell line, for example a dendritic cell, and the antigen presentation by the dendritic cell to a T cell that recognizes the protein or antigen can be measured. If the HCV consensus protein or consensus epitope of interest is being recognized by the immune system at a sufficient level, it will be processed into peptide fragments by the dendritic cells and presented in the context of MHC class I or class II to T cells. For the purpose of detecting the presented protein or antigen, a T cell clone or T cell line responsive to the particular protein or antigen may be used. The T cell may also be a T cell hybridoma, where the T cell is immortalized by fusion with a cancer cell line. Such T cell hybridomas, T cell clones, or T cell lines can comprise either CD8+ or CD4+ T cells. The dendritic cell can present to either CD8+ or CD4+ T cells, depending on the pathway by which the antigens are processed. CD8+ T cells recognize antigens in the context of MHC class I molecules while CD4+ recognize antigens in the context of MHC class II molecules. The T cell will be stimulated by the presented antigen through specific recognition by its T cell receptor, resulting in the production of certain proteins, such as IL-2, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), or interferon-γ (IFN-γ), that can be quantitatively measured (for example, using an ELISA assay, ELISPOT assay, or Intracellular Cytokine Staining (ICS)).
In another aspect, the invention provides methods for preventing an already infected individual from entering a chronic phase of infection. As the infection moves into the chronic phase, an infected individual's immune system is weakened and less effective against the HCV. By utilizing the precise genetic changes disclosed herein, methods of treatment are possible to prevent the chronic phase of infection. An effective amount of a composition comprising HCV consensus sequences (e.g., a vaccine) is administered to the infected individual. The progress of the infection is monitored afterwards. Optionally, prior to the administration of a vaccine, the full or partial sequence of the HCV infecting the individual is determined and the consensus sequence for administration can be customized if desired.
Methods of Diagnosis
The invention also provides for methods of diagnosing an individual with HCV. By using the consensus sequences disclosed herein, one of skill in the art can obtain a biological sample from an individual to be tested and then use PCR primers (or any comparable molecular biological technique) to the consensus sequence to amplify nucleic acids in the biological sample to determine if the individual has been infected with a particular strain of HCV (e.g., HCV 1a or HCV 1b).
In another embodiment, the nucleic acid sequence of portions of the HCV consensus sequence can be used as probes for purposes of diagnosis. The oligonucleotide sequences selected as probes should be sufficiently long and sufficiently unambiguous that false positives are minimized. The oligonucleotide can be labeled such that it can be detected upon hybridization to the nucleic acid (e.g., DNA) being screened. Methods of labeling are well known in the art, and include the use of radiolabels, such as 32P-labeled ATP, biotinylation or enzyme labeling. Hybridization conditions, including moderate stringency and high stringency, are provided in Sambrook et al., supra.
Kits
The invention further provides kits (or articles of manufacture) comprising the HCV consensus sequences of the present invention.
In one aspect, the invention provides a kit comprising both (a) a composition comprising a HCV consensus sequence described herein, and (b) instructions for the use of the composition in the prevention or treatment of HCV in a host. In some embodiments, the instructions are on a label. In other embodiments, the instructions are on an insert contained within the kit.
In another aspect, the invention provides a kit comprising both (a) a composition comprising a HCV consensus sequence described herein; and (b) instructions for the administration of the composition to a host. In some embodiments, the instructions are on a label. In other embodiments, the instructions are on an insert contained within the kit.
In another aspect, the invention provides a kit comprising both (a) a composition comprising a HCV consensus sequence described herein; and (b) instructions for selecting a host to which the composition is to be administered. In some embodiments, the instructions are on a label. In other embodiments, the instructions are on an insert contained within the kit.
In another aspect, the invention provides a kit comprising both (a) a composition comprising a HCV consensus sequence described herein; and (b) instructions for selecting one or more consensus sequence(s) to administer to an individual. In some embodiments, the instructions are on a label. In other embodiments, the instructions are on an insert contained within the kit
In some embodiments of each of the aforementioned aspects, the composition is a vaccine. In some embodiments of each of the aforementioned aspects, the vaccine comprises the entire consensus sequence 1a or a fragment thereof. In other embodiments, the vaccine comprises the entire consensus sequence 1b or a fragment thereof. In other embodiments, the vaccine comprises one or more HCV proteins or a fragment thereof. It is understood that these composition include non-synonymous changes as well.
The following are provided to illustrate, but not to limit, the invention.
Using HCV Sequence Database at Los Alamos National Laboratories at the website: http://hcv.lanl.gov, all available non-redundant human sequences greater than 500 nucleotides were obtained. Then, the options were set as default except for: “Genotype” was set to “1”, “Subtype” to “a or b”, “Include recombinants” set to “off”, “Include fragments longer than” was set to “on, 500” and “Exclude Non-human hosts” was set to “on.” Once the preliminary query result was displayed, “Exclude related” was chosen. Then the sequences were downloaded with default options. The rationale behind these series of steps is that size restriction reduces the number of unidirectional (poor quality) sequences.
Next, the alignments were neatened by performing any number of commands, such as restoring codon boundaries, closing gaps and removing non-translated termini. The rationale behind this step is that only the primary open reading frame is desired. Next, sequences that contain >1% ambiguous sites or >1 frameshift were removed. The rationale for this step is to remove low-quality sequences. Next, the terminal “gap” characters were converted to “missing.” The rationale behind this step is to distinguish true gaps from missing data for subsequent analysis. Using the CleanCollapse program, which was written by Stuart Ray and publicly available at <http://sray.med.som.jhmi.edu/SCRoftware/CleanCollapse>, identical sequences were identified. The CleanCollapse program has also been disclosed in Kieffer T L, et al. J Infect Dis. 2004; 189(8):1452-65. For identical sequences, related publications were checked and any linked sequences were removed. The rationale behind this approach is that oversampling individuals could skew sequence distributions. Despite use of “Exclude related” option above, the returned data set can still include many redundant/related sequences. Thus, these were removed to prevent skewing of sequence distributions.
Predicted polyprotein sequences were generated by automated translation in BioEdit (Tom Hall, URL: <http://www.mbio.ncsu.edu/RNaseP/info/programs/BIOEDIT/bioedit.html>) using standard eukaryotic genetic code. The majority-rule consensus sequence were identified for each subtype by using the MargFreq program written by Stuart Ray and publicly available at <http://sray.med.som.jhmi.edu/SCRoftware/MargFreq> to identify modal aa residue at each site. The MargFreq program has also been disclosed in Ray S C, et al. J. Virol. 1999 April; 73(4):2938-46. Where there is a near-tie at a site, the nearest neighbor (the other subtype) distribution for likely ancestor/shared state was examined and then used. The rationale behind this is that it reduces likelihood of escape mutant for common HLA allele being used. The result was consensus sequence1a (SEQ ID NO:1) and consensus sequence1b (SEQ ID NO:2).
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection frequently persists despite substantial virus-specific cellular immune responses. To determine if immunologically-driven sequence variation occurs with HCV persistence, we coordinately analyzed sequence evolution and CD8+ T cell responses to epitopes covering the entire HCV polyprotein in subjects followed prospectively from prior to infection to beyond the first year. There were no substitutions in T-cell epitopes for a year following infection in a subject who cleared viremia. In contrast, in subjects with persistent viremia and detectable T cell responses, we observed substitutions in 69% of T cell epitopes, and every subject had a substitution in at least one epitope. In addition, amino acid substitutions occurred 13-fold more often within than outside T cell epitopes (p<0.001, range 5-38). T lymphocyte recognition of eight of ten mutant peptides was markedly reduced compared to the initial sequence, indicating viral escape. Of 16 non-envelope substitutions that occurred outside of known T cell epitopes, eight represented conversion to consensus (p=0.015). These findings reveal two distinct mechanisms of sequence evolution involved in HCV persistence: viral escape from CD8+ T cell responses and optimization of replicative capacity.
The World Health Organization estimates there are 170 million persons with HCV infection worldwide, and an estimated 4 million persons are infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) in the United States.(1,2) In most countries, HCV infection is found in 1-2% of the general population and may cause cirrhosis or hepatocellular cancer, but only when infection persists.(3-7)
Patients in the acute phase of HCV infection are much more likely to respond to therapy designed to eradicate the virus than are patients after progression to chronicity.(8-10) The features unique to acute infection that allow increased responsiveness to interferon therapy remain unknown. Spontaneous clearance of HCV infection occurs in about 20% of acutely infected individuals and is associated with a broadly specific and vigorous cellular immune response.(11-14) Although the cellular immune response is often less vigorous and more narrowly directed in those who fail to clear the infection, a cellular immune response is nonetheless often present in early infection and may even persist into chronic infection. Why the early response fails to control viremia in those who progress to chronic infection is not clear, but responses generated in acute infection have been shown to decline in some subjects who remained persistently infected and chronic infection is characterized by low frequencies of CD8+ T cells in peripheral blood.(13, 15-20) Although the liver has the potential to delete antigen-specific T cell responses, HCV-specific CD8+ CTL lines have been generated from the liver of both chronically infected humans and chimpanzees, suggesting that elimination of HCV specific lymphocytes from the liver is neither universal nor necessary for HCV persistence.(21-24) Survival of HCV despite virus-specific CD8+ CTL might be explained by impaired cellular effector functions (proliferation, cytokine secretion, or cytolytic activity), T cell exhaustion, or dendritic cell dysfunction.(16, 25-27) A final possibility is that persistence is facilitated by viral evolution over the course of infection, enabling escape by mutation of key epitopes targeted by T-lymphocytes. Mutational escape from T cell responses has indeed been noted in HIV, which uses an error prone RNA polymerase similar to HCV.(28)
Mathematical models of viral kinetics suggest that up to 1012 virions are produced each day in a human with chronic hepatitis C.(29) This rate exceeds comparable estimates of the production of HIV by more than an order of magnitude, and, coupled with the absence of proofreading by the HCV NS5B RNA polymerase, results in frequent mutations within the HCV genome. Mutation of class I or II MHC restricted T cell epitopes could alter the outcome of infection by preventing or delaying clearance of infected hepatocytes.(30) In the face of a vigorous multispecific CTL response, mutation of several epitopes, perhaps simultaneously, would be required for survival of the virus. In HCV infection, a strong association between viral persistence and the development of escape mutations has been demonstrated in the chimpanzee model (31) and one group examined viral evolution in a single human histocompatibility leukocyte antigen (HLA)-B8-restricted NS3 epitope,(32) but evidence of evasion of a multispecific CTL response in humans is lacking. Although mutations in class I MHC restricted HCV epitopes have been observed in humans with chronic HCV infection, it is uncertain that these mutations result from CD8+ T cell selection pressure or that they occur during the acute phase of infection, when clearance or persistence is determined.(33-35)
Studies of the cellular immune response to acute HCV infection have been challenging because acute hepatitis C is usually clinically silent, making early virus isolates and CTL difficult to obtain. In addition, no consistent pattern of HCV epitope dominance has emerged in humans so large numbers of PBMC are needed for the broad screening required to identify CTL responses. We have overcome these challenges to test the hypothesis that cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL)-driven sequence variation occurs with progression to persistent HCV in humans. We prospectively studied HCV antibody negative injection drug users at risk for HCV infection and compared the viral sequences at initial viremia to sequences obtained at multiple time points in acute HCV infection. In parallel, a genome wide analysis of T cell responsiveness was performed. As evidence of immune selection pressure, we determined the percentage of T cell epitopes that underwent substitution, assessed the likelihood of amino acid changing substitutions to occur within versus outside T cell epitopes, and examined the effects of observed amino acid sequence changes in epitopes on T cell recognition and MHC class I binding. For amino acid substitutions outside T cell epitopes, we investigated explanations other than T cell pressure. Our results provide strong evidence in humans that both immune and fitness selection occur during the acute phase of HCV infection.
Materials and Methods
Participants. The Risk Evaluation Assessment of Community Health (REACH) prospective study of young IDUs in Baltimore, Md. examined the incidence and risk factors for HCV infection, as described previously. (47) Participants eligible for the study were anti-HCV antibody negative, between 15 to 30 years of age, and acknowledged use of injection drugs. Participants were invited to co-enroll in a substudy of acute hepatitis C and those who consented had blood drawn for isolation of serum, plasma, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells in a protocol designed for monthly follow up. At each visit, participants were provided counseling to reduce the risks of drug use. The REACH protocol and the HCV substudy protocols were approved by the institutional review boards of the Johns Hopkins Schools of Medicine and Hygiene and Public Health.
From 1997 to 2002, 179 participants were enrolled and 62 (34.6%) developed anti-HCV antibodies (seroconverted). Beginning in November 2001, acutely infected persons were assessed for donation of ˜108-1010 PBMC by blood donation or apheresis. HCV-specific lymphocyte responses and sequences were studied in detail in 5 acutely infected persons who were assessed frequently during the six-month period following infection and from whom large volumes of PBMC were obtained. HCV sequencing and limited analysis of the cellular response were performed using an additional 3 subjects for whom smaller numbers of cells were available, as described below.
HCV testing protocol. Serum or plasma, stored at −80° C., from monthly follow-up visits was tested for the presence of HCV specific antibodies using the commercially available Ortho version 3.0 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (Ortho Clinical Diagnostics, Raritan, N.J.) according to manufacturer's instructions. Specimens in which antibodies were detected were retested in duplicate along with the participant's previous seronegative sample to identify seroconverters. HCV RNA testing was performed on sera or plasma separated from blood within two hours of collection and stored at −80° C. For HCV seroconverters, HCV RNA testing was done on samples collected before seroconversion until a negative result was obtained and after seroconversion to evaluate the outcome of infection (viral persistence versus clearance) by using quantitative, and if undetectable, qualitative HCV RNA tests that are described below.
HCV RNA Assays—Qualitative. For detecting HCV RNA, we used the COBAS AMPLICOR™ Hepatitis C Virus Test version 2.0 (Roche Molecular Systems, Branchburg, N.J.). A limit of detection of 1.7 log10International Units (IU)/mL at >95% detection is reported for this assay. Quantitative. To determine concentration of HCV RNA in serum, we used a quantitative RT-PCR assay (COBAS AMPLICOR™ HCV Monitor version 2.0, Roche Molecular Systems). This assay has a lower limit of quantitation of 2.8 log10 IU/mL. When HCV RNA was not detected by using this assay, the sample was retested using the Roche qualitative test.
HCV Genotyping. Genotype was determined by performing phylogenetic analysis on Core-E1 region sequences of HCV obtained from the first viremic specimen. For most specimens, sequences were obtained from cDNA clones generated with a long amplicon RT-PCR method that has been described previously.(48) For other specimens, genotype was determined by direct sequencing of RT-PCR products from the same Core-E1 region as previously described.(49) Sequences were aligned using ClustalX,(50) trimmed to equal length using BioEdit.(51) The GTR+I+G analytical model (parameters available on request from the authors) was selected using the AIC criterion as implemented in ModelTest version 3.06(52) and PAUP* version 4b10 (Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass.). Phylogenetic trees were estimated using the neighbor-joining algorithm implemented in PAUP*, and robustness of clustering was tested using by bootstrap analysis.(53)
Viral recovery. HCV clearance was defined as the presence of anti-HCV with HCV RNA undetectable by the COBAS AMPLICOR™ qualitative assay in serum or plasma specimens from ≧2 consecutive visits obtained at least 300 days after initial detection of viremia. Persistence was defined as the persistent presence of anti-HCV with HCV RNA detectable by the qualitative or quantitative COBAS AMPLICOR assay in serum or plasma specimens obtained at least 300 days after initial viremia.(54)
Hemigenomic HCV sequencing and analysis. From 140-280 uL of serum or plasma, the 5.2 kb region from the 5′UTR to the NS3/NS4A junction was cloned as previously described.(48) For each specimen, thirty-three clones were assigned to clonotypes by using a previously-described gel shift assay,(55) and 2 clones representing the modal clonotype were sequenced, with a third clone used as needed to resolve discrepancies. Sequences were assembled into contigs using Aligner (CodonCode). Sequence data were obtained at the point of initial viremia and approximately six months later.
Reference sequence analysis. Reference sequence data were obtained from the HCV Sequence Database (http://hcv.lanl.gov). For table 1, amino acid sequence was inferred from cDNA sequences, which were obtained using the HCV Sequence Database's Search Interface. Default search parameters were used, except that (i) only subtype 1a sequences were included, (ii) recombinant sequences were excluded, (iii) non-human sequences were excluded, and (iv) the search was performed for the codon of interest based on position in the HCV polyprotein. When multiple sequences with the same “patient ID” were obtained, only the first occurrence was retained.
Cellular immunology. IFN-γ ELISPOT assay to assess HCV-specific T-cell responses. HCV-specific CD8+ T-cell responses were quantified by ELISPOT assay as previously described(56) with the following modifications. For Subjects 17, 18, 21, 28, and 29, enough PBMC were acquired to test for T cell recognition of 523 overlapping peptides (16-22mer peptides overlapping by 10 amino acids) spanning the entire expressed HCV-H77 genome (genotype 1a) as well as 83 peptides corresponding to optimal described CTL epitopes(57) in a matrix format. The peptides recognized in the matrix were subsequently tested individually and in at least duplicate to confirm recognition and to measure the number of spot forming colonies (SFC) produced. For three additional subjects where the number of cells was limited, responses to peptides spanning regions of sequence variation detected during sequencing, but not to the entire collection of 523 overlapping peptides, were assessed. Ninety-six well polyvinylidene plates (Millipore, Billerica, Mass.) were coated with 2.5 μg/ml recombinant human anti-IFN-gamma antibody (Endogen, Pierce Biotechnology, Rockford, Ill.) in PBS at 4° C. overnight. Fresh or previously frozen PBMC were added at 200,000 cells/well in 140 μl R10 media (RPMI 1640 (Sigma-Aldrich Corp., St. Louis, Mo.), 10% FCS (Sigma-Aldrich), and 10 mM Hepes buffer(Sigma-Aldrich) with 2 mM glutamine and antibiotics (50 U/ml penicillin-streptomycin)). Peptides were added directly to the wells at a final concentration of 10 μg/ml. The plates were incubated for 20 hours at 37° C., 5% CO2. Plates were then washed, labelled with 0.25 μg/ml biotin-labelled anti-IFN-γ (Endogen), and developed by incubation with streptavidin-alkaline phophatase (Bio-Rad Lab., Hercules, Calif.) followed by incubation with BCIP/NBT (Bio-Rad) in Tris-buffer (pH 9.5). The reaction was stopped by washing with tap water and the plates were dried, prior to counting on an ELISPOT reader (Cellular Technology Ltd, Cleveland, Ohio). For quantitation of ex-vivo responses, the assay was performed at least in duplicate and background was not more than 15 SFC per million PBMC. Responses were considered positive if the number of spots per well minus the background was at least 25 SFC per million PBMC.(56) A control of pooled cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, and influenza antigens (CEF control peptide pool) and phytohemmaglutinin (PHA) were used as positive controls.(58) Responses to the CEF control peptide pool were quantifiable and remained relatively constant over time. Responses to PHA were uniformly positive.
Intracellular cytokine staining (ICS). To determine whether the lines generated for each epitope were CD4+ or CD8+ T cell lines, intracellular cytokine staining (ICS) for IFN-γ was performed as previously described.(56) Briefly, 1×106 PBMC were incubated with 4 μg/ml peptide at 37° C. and 5% CO2 for 1 h before the addition of Monensin (1 μl/ml; Sigma-Aldrich). The cells were incubated for an additional 5 h at 37° C. and 5% CO2. PBMC were then washed and stained with surface antibodies, fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated anti-CD8 or FITC-conjugated anti-CD4 (Becton Dickinson, BD, Franklin Lakes, N.J.) at 4° C. for 20 min. Following the washing, the PBMC were fixed and permeabilized (Caltag, Burlingame, Calif.), and the phycoerythrin (PE)-conjugated anti-IFN-γ MAb (Becton Dickinson) was added. Cells were then washed and analyzed on a FACS-Calibur flow cytometer using CellQuest software (Becton Dickinson).
Magnetic bead separation of CD8+ and CD4+ T cells. To determine if the responding T cells in PBMC were CD4+ or CD8+ T cells, between 3 and 10×107 PBMC were labeled with magnetic beads bearing anti-CD8 or anti-CD4 antibodies (Miltenyi Biotec, Auburn, Calif.) according to the manufacturer's instructions and cells were positively selected using an Auto MACS (Miltenyi Biotec) to isolate either CD8+ or CD4+ cells. The ELISPOT assay was repeated using the isolated CD8+ or CD4+ T cells to determine if recognition of an epitope were mediated by CD8+ or CD4+ T cells.
Bulk stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. To establish CD8+ T cell lines, cryopreserved or fresh PBMC (4−10×106) were stimulated with 10 μg/ml of synthetic HCV peptide and 0.5 μg/ml of the costimulatory antibodies anti-CD28 and anti-CD49d (Becton Dickinson) in R10 media. Recombinant interleukin-2 (IL-2, 25 IU/ml) was added on day 2 and every other day thereafter. Cells were restimulated with 25×106 irradiated allogeneic PBMC and 10 μg/ml of synthetic HCV peptide after ten days.
Testing impact of amino acid substitutions on T cell recognition. To assess the impact of amino acid substitutions on T cell recognition, HCV peptide-specific T cell lines generated from PBMC obtained six months after initial viremia were tested for IFN-γ production in response to serial dilutions of synthetic peptides representing the viral sequences present at initial viremia (t0) or at six months following initial viremia (t6). In five cases where the frequency of T cells specific for the HCV epitope was high, bulk PBMC obtained six months following initial viremia were also tested in this way. Comparison of initial and variant epitopes was performed using log10 dilutions of the t0 and t6 peptides from 10 μM to 0.001 μM in the IFN-γ ELSIPOT assay described above for PBMC, but using 30,000 T cells when T cell lines were tested. Ten peptide pairs from subjects with chronic viremia were tested, and three patterns were observed. Loss of recognition was defined as either no recognition at the highest concentration of the t6 peptide or at least 20 fold greater recognition of the to peptide than the t6 peptide at all concentrations. Decreased recognition was defined as greater than 2 and less than 20 fold fewer spot forming colonies (SFC) produced at two or more concentrations of the t6 peptide. Comparable recognition was defined as no more than a two fold difference in SFC between the t0 and t6 peptides at two or more concentrations tested.
MHC-peptide binding assays. EBV transformed cell lines were used as the primary sources of HLA molecules. Cells were maintained in vitro and HLA molecules purified by affinity chromatography as previously described.(59) Quantitative assays to measure the binding of peptides to purified class I molecules are based on the inhibition of binding of a radiolabeled standard peptide.(59) Briefly, 1-10 nM of radiolabeled peptide was co-incubated at room temperature with 1 μM to 1 nM of purified MHC in the presence of 1 μM human, β2-microglubulin (Scripps Laboratories, San Diego, Calif.) and a cocktail of protease inhibitors. After a two-day incubation, binding of the radiolabeled peptide to the corresponding MHC class I molecule was determined by capturing MHC/peptide complexes on Greiner Lumitrac 600 microplates (Greiner Bio-one, Longwood, Fla.) coated with the W6/32 antibody, and measuring bound cpm using the TopCount microscintillation counter (Packard Instrument Co. Meriden, Conn.).
Statistical analysis. Statistical analysis was done with the aid of SigmaStat software version 3.10 (Systat software, Inc.). For comparing proportions, Fisher's exact (small sample size) and Chi squared (large sample size) tests were used. Differences were considered significant if p-values were <0.05.
Results—We assessed T cell responses and sequenced half the HCV genome in eight subjects, seven of whom progressed to chronic infection (
Persistence versus Loss of T cell Epitopes with Sequence Evolution—The locations of amino acid substitutions and recognized CD8+ T cell epitopes are shown for subjects 17, 18, 21, 28, and 29 in
Impact of Amino Acid Substitutions on T cell Recognition—T cell lines were generated from PBMC using synthetic peptides representing the viral sequences present at initial viremia (t0). To assess the impact of amino acid substitutions on T cell recognition, those T cell lines and bulk PBMC obtained approximately 6 months after initial viremia were tested for IFN-γ production in response to serial dilutions of the to peptide or a synthetic peptide representing the viral sequence present at six months following initial viremia (t6). Ten t0/t6 peptide pairs from subjects with persistent viremia were tested using T cell lines, and three patterns were observed (
Mechanisms of Loss of T cell Recognition with Amino Acid Substitutions—Amino acid substitutions may result in decreased recognition through reduced HLA binding capacity, abrogation of T cell recognition, or altered processing with failure to generate the correct sequence for presentation on the surface. We did observe marked reduction in HLA biding capacity as one mechanism for reduced recognition in our subjects. For example, the HLA A*0101-restricted ATDALMTGY epitope recognized at to by Subject 28 had an A*0101 binding capacity (IC50) of 0.24 nM while the ATDALMTGF peptide recognized at t6 had a binding capacity of 64 nM. A five fold difference in binding capacity is considered significant, thus the variant peptide is less well bound to the HLA. However, the HLA A*0201-restricted KLVALGINAV epitope recognized at to by Subject 28 had an A0201 binding capacity of 5.0 nM while the KLVAMGINAV peptide recognized at t6 had a binding capacity of 2.3 nM, an insignificant difference that if anything favors the less well recognized peptide, t6. This t6 peptide may stimulate less IFN-γ production in the ELISPOT assay because of decreased T cell recognition rather than reduced HLA binding capacity. Although two of the ten t0/t6 peptide pairs were recognized comparably, we can not rule out that they represent escape mutations as well since substitutions have been shown by others to result in altered processing such that the peptide is no longer presented on the cell surface.(32,36,37) This mode of escape is circumvented when peptides are loaded onto the surface of the cell, as is the case in an ELISPOT assay.
Driving Forces for Sequence Evolution—We next evaluated the proportion of substitutions occurring in observed T cell epitopes and investigated explanations for substitutions outside of T cell epitopes. Of 69 substitution observed in the eight subjects, 17 (25%) occurred within detected CD8+ T-cell epitopes, 36 (52%) in envelope proteins (likely antibody targets), and 16 (23%) outside envelope regions and T cell epitopes. Of the eight subjects, five subjects had persistent viremia and T cell responses, and amino acid substitutions were a median of 13 fold more likely to occur within T cell epitopes than outside epitopes (p<0.001, range 5-38) in those subjects. Even though at a population level the envelope proteins are highly diverse, amino acid substitutions in T cell epitopes exceeded those in E1 and E2 by 7 fold (p<0.001, range 4-14). Of the 16 amino acid substitutions observed outside of the envelope proteins or recognized T cell epitopes (Table 1), 8 represented conversion to the most commonly-observed residue in reference sequences (i.e., convergence to the consensus sequence). Because each change has 19 alternative amino acids, and each site has only one modal (most frequently-observed) state, the convergence on modal residues at 50% of sites is highly unexpected if substitution is random (p=0.015, Table 2). In addition, the convergent changes were not consistently conservative changes, arguing against strict structural or functional constraint. These data are consistent with an accompanying study of chronically infected individuals for whom the inoculum sequence was known. That study showed that substitutions occurring in known epitopes for which the infected individual lacked the presenting HLA allele were consistently reversions toward the worldwide consensus sequence for subtype 1b.
Discussion—In this investigation of sequence variation in T cell epitopes as a potential mechanism for viral persistence, we show that amino acid substitutions during acute HCV infection are nonrandom and may be explained in part by escape from CD8+ T cell recognition and convergence, possibly because of replicatively unfit substitutions selected in a previous host. Significantly, there is early fixation of the T cell repertoire since we observed no instances of de novo development of T cells that recognized mutant t6 epitopes better than the original t0 epitope using lines or PBMC.
Using the chimpanzee model of HCV infection, mutation of multiple class I MHC restricted epitopes early in the course of chronic HCV infection has been demonstrated.(31) The role of CD8+ CTL in control of HCV replication was further reinforced by a statistically significant increase in the number of mutations resulting in amino acid changes in class I MHC restricted epitopes but not unrestricted epitopes or flanking sequences of the viral genome. These data indicate that in chimpanzees, amino acid substitutions in class I MHC restricted epitopes are selected and possibly maintained by HCV-specific CD8+ CTL populations that exert positive Darwinian selection pressure.
We also observed a statistically significant increase in the number of mutations resulting in amino acid changes in class I MHC restricted epitopes versus portions of the viral genome outside T cell epitopes and that amino acid substitutions in class I MHC restricted epitopes resulted in escape from CD8+ T cell recognition in acutely HCV-infected humans who progressed to chronic infection. New T cells specific for the sequences detected six months after initial viremia were not detected despite follow-up for as long as three years following infection. Thus, selection of HCV variants that evade CD8+ T cell recognition may represent a mechanism for persistence of HCV infection in humans. Supporting this, we observed no substitutions within recognized CD8+ T cell epitopes in the subject who cleared infection and substitution in 60-75% of CD8+ T cell epitopes in subjects with persistent infection. The number of CTL epitopes with substitutions has previously been shown to correlate with control of HIV viremia,(28) but a relationship between HCV control and maintenance of T cell epitopes had not been shown previously.
Although the observed substitutions were disproportionately contained within the portion of the HCV polyprotein in T-cell epitopes, many were found outside detectable T cell epitopes. It is possible that we missed CD8+ T cell epitopes and that some of the substitutions observed outside of T cell epitopes actually represented substitutions within T cell epitopes. We took several steps to minimize the chances of this occurring. Where there were substitutions and the H77 sequence used to make overlapping peptides as potential antigens differed from that of the subject, we tested for recognition of overlapping peptides representing autologous sequence. Where the subject's sequence matched H77 in areas of amino acid substitution, but there were no responses detected, we tested for recognition of additional overlapping peptides with different termini to minimize the possibility that we cut within a region containing an epitope. We detected no additional epitopes via ELISPOT analysis with either method of antigen modification (data not shown).
Since there is no clinical indication for liver biopsy in acute infection, we could only assess responses in the periphery. It is therefore possible that some of the substitutions may represent pressure for T cell responses present in the liver but not detectable in the periphery, We do not favor this explanation since previous studies have shown that the majority of T cell responses in the liver are also detectable in the peripheral blood.(38,39) There are several possible alternative mechanisms for selection of these substitutions occurring outside of observed CD8+ T cell epitopes. The first is that they represent substitutions in CD4+ T cell epitopes. Although we detect a few CD4+ T cell epitopes using our ELISPOT assay, the conditions of the assay preferentially detect CD8+ T cell epitopes and we may fail to detect all the possible CD4+ T cell epitopes. The second possible explanation is that they represent substitutions in B cell epitopes. Mutations in dominant antibody epitope(s) located in the hypervariable region 1 (HVR-1) of envelope glycoprotein 2 (E2) have been linked to persistence of HCV infection.(40) B cell epitopes are predicted to occur within the envelope regions of the polyprotein and the majority of mutations outside T cell epitopes were found in the envelope proteins for most subjects. Another possible explanation is that the mutations outside of T cell epitopes are selected because they confer a viral replication advantage. Some mutations may represent epitopes recognized by the previous host that revert to a more stable sequence when the new host fails to mount similar immune pressure. This may occur when the new host lacks the MHC allele required to present that epitope. Loss of escape mutations upon passage of SIV to new animals (41), and HIV to humans (42), that do not exert immune pressure on that region has been described recently, with the inference that escape from CTL responses may reduce viral fitness.
The relevance of those studies to human infection with HCV is supported by a recent study of one epitope in an acutely HCV infected patient (32), and our accompanying study of chronically infected individuals. The latter study shows that HCV amino acid sequence tends to revert to consensus in areas outside of T cell epitopes in subjects who are persistently infected. The consensus sequence likely represents a more replicatively fit state than the initial infecting strains, which have presumably adapted to the immune response of the previous host. Taken together, these results reveal at least two types of sequence variation occurring simultaneously in progression of acute HCV to persistence: immune pressure that selects T cell escape variants, and reversion to consensus sequence that is likely to result in enhanced replicative fitness.
Despite viral mutation resulting in the production of new potential antigens, no new T cell responses developed in response to mutant peptides that escaped initial recognition over months and in some cases years following the appearance of the mutation. This phenomenon has also been observed with HIV sequence evolution and there the failure to prime new responses may be due to impaired CD4+ T cell function. Although overall CD4+ T cell function is intact in HCV infection, chronic HCV infection has been linked to loss of HCV specific CD4+ T cell responses.(43) In addition, HCV has been linked to impaired DC function, decreased IRF3 signaling, and PKR inhibition, which may inhibit priming of an immune response to the mutated peptides.(26,27,44,45) However, the failure to prime responses to the newly generated sequences is observed even in HIV infected individuals with relatively high CD4 counts and there is no evidence in those with HCV infection of impaired priming of immune responses to other antigens, as would be evident by global immunosuppression. An alternative explanation is that original antigenic sin (the higher threshold required for stimulation of an immune response to an epitope resembling a previously recognized epitope (46)) may be responsible for the lack of response to mutant sequences seen in HIV and HCV, though this phenomenon has not been demonstrated in humans. Lastly, since the selective pressures of the immune system favor the emergence of a viral sequence that fails to elicit a productive response, we may be observing sequences that cannot be processed effectively for presentation or that resemble self antigens and are therefore incapable of stimulating an immune response.
Although the features of acute infection responsible for increased responsiveness to interferon therapy are unknown, this study suggests a mechanistic linkage between viral sequence variation and progression to chronicity. The arrested development of new T cell responses despite ongoing viremia with sequence evolution distinguishes the acute and chronic phases of HCV infection. Enhanced understanding of cellular immune failure leading to chronic HCV infection could accelerate development of vaccines to prevent the development of chronic infection, and agents that could increase responsiveness to interferon-based therapy for chronic HCV infection.
The genomic sequences of viruses that are highly mutable and cause chronic infection tend to diverge over time. We report that these changes represent both immune driven selection and, in the absence of immune pressure, reversion toward a more “fit” ancestral consensus. Sequence changes in hepatitis C virus (HCV) structural and nonstructural genes were studied in a cohort of women accidentally infected with HCV in a rare common-source outbreak. We compared sequences present in serum obtained 18-22 years after infection to sequences present in the shared inoculum and found that HCV had evolved along a distinct path in each woman. Amino acid substitutions in known epitopes were directed away from consensus in persons having the HLA allele associated with that epitope (immune selection), and toward consensus in those lacking the allele (reversion). Vaccines for genetically-diverse viruses may be more effective if they represent consensus sequence, rather than a human isolate.
A virus capable of genetic variation and of causing chronic infection will evolve to optimize its fitness in each host, which is the net sum of immune recognition (positive selection) and functional constraint on replication (negative selection). Because an estimated 1012 virions are produced each day through an error-prone, non-proofreading NS5B RNA polymerase, hepatitis C virus (HCV) is especially capable of viral evolution (1,2) (These numbers in Example 3 refer to the list of references listed after Example 3). However, we previously showed that evolution is not driven by replication alone. In the acute phase of infection before adaptive immune responses (but after weeks of replication supporting a viral RNA level of more than 105 IU/mL), the same major viral variant was detected in each of a serial passage of eight chimpanzees (3). In contrast, the sequence of envelope genes, particularly HVR1, changes in virtually all humans who have been persistently infected (including the source of the inoculum passaged through this chimpanzee lineage (4)), a notable exception being persons with agammaglobulinemia, who have been shown to have reduced variability in HVR1 (5). Longitudinal studies of chimpanzees experimentally infected with HCV have revealed that amino acid replacements in immunodominant CD8+ T cell epitopes presented on MHC class I in an allele-restricted manner contribute to viral persistence (6). Thus, we hypothesized that the net evolution of HCV would demonstrate functional constraint (reversion of sequences toward consensus) as well as positive pressure (and thus reveal immunodominant epitopes).
Although it required that persons be infected with the same inoculum, it was possible to test this hypothesis because between May 1977 and November 1978 over 500 women were inadvertently infected with HCV from a single acutely-infected source, as a result of treatment with contaminated anti-D immune globulin (7). In a single amplicon, a 5.2 kb cDNA spanning 5′UTR through the NS3/NS4A junction was cloned from serum collected from 22 women 18-23 years after infection, as well as in 2 specimens of frozen plasma from the inoculum donor.
Methods and Materials
Study subjects. Twenty-two women from this outbreak were studied because they provided consent and had at least one of the 3 most common alleles at the HLA A locus (A*01, A*02, or A*03) (16).
Hemigenomic cDNA cloning. The region encoding Core, E1, E2, p7, NS2, and NS3 was amplified and cloned as previously described (17), and 40 clones per specimen were stored. For each specimen, envelope sequences from 10 random randomly-selected clones were determined using primer H77-1868a21 (17) on a PRISM version 3100 sequencer (ABI, Foster City, Calif.).
Estimation of Consensus Sequence. An alignment of full-length HCV subtype 1b sequences was obtained from the Los Alamos National Laboratories HCV database (http://hcv.lanl.gov). The alignment was edited by hand to remove gaps introduced for alignment to other genotypes, and to remove duplicate sequences from the same human source and those obtained from non-human sources. The resulting alignment included 83 sequences. A majority-rule consensus sequence was formed, with residues occurring in less than 42 sequences flagged as non-consensus. Changes in the anti-D recipients were then classified as “toward” (change results in a residue matching the consensus) or “away” (change results in a residue not matching the consensus, or residue is non-consensus).
Estimation of the likelihood of convergence. The expected frequency of co-variation assuming independence was calculated as the product of the marginal frequencies, and compared to the observed value using the Chi-squared distribution with 3 degrees of freedom. If we assume that all amino acid replacements are equally likely over a time period that is very long with respect to the rate of mutation, then sharing of amino acids at 4 variable sites in just 2 study subjects would be expected to occur at a frequency of 1/204 or 0.00000625. Of course, all amino acid replacements are not equally likely, even in the highly variable HVR1 (8); therefore, the likelihood of sharing of 4 variable sites by 2 subjects would be higher, e.g. 1/34 or 0.012 if each site is equally likely to have one of 3 residues. Because the likelihood of shared residues at variable sites in multiple study subjects is the product of such probabilities, the observed findings in this study are clearly incompatible with random substitution and most consistent with convergent evolution.
Phylogenetic Analysis. Sequences were aligned using ClustalX (18), codon boundaries were restored by hand in BioEdit (19), and phylogenetic analysis was performed using PAUP* version 4b10 (Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass.) using a HKY85+G model and parameters (Ti/Tv 2.78, gamma=0.37) selected with the aid of ModelTest (20). Initial results from one specimen were consistent with subtype 1a, and that specimen was not examined further. Reference sequences included 3 from subtype 1a, 83 from subtype 1b (including AF313916), 2 from subtype 1c, 6 from subtype 2a, 8 from subtype 2b, 1 each from subtypes 2c and 2k, 4 from subtype 3a, and 1 each from subtypes 3b, 3k, 4a, 5a, 6a, 6b, 6d, 6g, 6h, and 6k (obtained from http://hcv.lanl.gov). VarPlot was used to calculate nonsynonymous and synonymous distances using the method of Nei and Gojobori, in a sliding window 20 codons wide, moving in 1 codon steps, as previously described (21).
Sequence logos. The sequence logos in
Results and Discussion
HCV envelope sequence from the inoculum clustered near the base of the clade formed by sequences from the chronically-infected women (
There was strong evidence of negative selection in both the regional differences in genetic divergence, as well as by comparison of the rates of nonsynonymous (amino acid-changing) and synonymous (silent) change (
The HVR1 sequences illustrated two distinct patterns of sequence change. When the amino acid of the inoculum matched the consensus for that viral subtype, residues either did not change or changed in an apparently ‘sporadic’ fashion (risk of finding the residue in recipients was not different than finding the residue in the inoculum, indicated by near-zero height of the sequence logo in
Rather than convergent evolution, these results might have been due to shared selection and then divergence (at other sites) from a rare variant that we did not detect in the inoculum. We did detect one clone (clone #5) among 20 in the inoculum material that carried the RxTxxFxS motif at positions 394-401, but it was highly divergent from all other sequences described here, as; evident from its position in the phylogenetic tree (
Because HVR1 is a potential target of both humoral and cellular immunity and the precise recognition motifs remain difficult to identify due to the extreme variability, further examination of immune selection and convergence was focused on other genes, and in particular, on known MHC class I-restricted epitopes. Consistent with immune selection hypothesis, the number of changes in epitopes associated with specific class I alleles was significantly greater than the number of changes in other sites and greater than what was found in that same site for persons who did not possess the allele (Table 3). For HLA B*35 and B*37, sequence changes were 7.0 and 8.5 times as likely to occur in an epitope associated with an allele in women having the allele as compared with those that lacked it (P<0.001). An example of such an epitope is shown in a 38 amino acid region that spans an HLA A2 motif (
As seen with envelope sequences, the opposite effect was observed in other alleles. For alleles A*01 and B*08, sequence changes were 0.2 and 0.4 times as likely to occur in an epitope restricted by an allele in women having the allele as compared with those who lack it (Table 3). In fact, the R to K mutation that was described above in both A2 positive and negative women, only occurred in women who were not HLA B*08 positive, while the apparently A2-restricted G1409S substitution occurred in both B*08 positive and negative women (
Collectively, these findings indicate that HCV sequence change is a non-random process that reflects negative selection (change is disadvantageous) as well as positive selection. Moreover, we find evidence that positive selection represents both the direct effect of pressure applied by immune responses in the current host (in this case, HLA class I restricted CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes) as well as reversion of sequence to a more fit consensus, as we saw with envelope sequences.
To independently evaluate this paradigm, we compared the amino acid sequences of these women with a HCV 1b consensus sequence. For the epitopes that showed evidence of HLA class I restricted positive selection (a significantly increased risk of mutations from the inoculum occurred when the restricting allele was present), there was also an increased number of changes away from the 1b prototype consensus in women with one of these alleles, but not those without (Table 4). In addition, for epitopes that showed the converse effect, i.e., evidence of positive selection when the allele was absent (a significantly lower risk of mutations from the inoculum when the restricting allele was present), there was also an increased number of changes toward consensus in those who lacked the allele versus those who had the allele, suggesting reversion (Table 4). These findings are supported in an accompanying report (Cox, et al. J Exp Med. 2005 Jun. 6; 201(11):1741-52 and Example 2), which shows that amino acid substitutions in CD8+ T cell epitopes are associated with a loss of T cell recognition during acute infection, whereas non-epitope changes revert toward consensus at a rate much higher than expected by chance.
Prior studies have demonstrated reversion of CTL-escape variant sequences in macaques experimentally infected with SIV (11), reversion of an HIV-1 epitope in humans (12), and evidence of HIV-1 adaptation to common HLA alleles (13). This is the first report of viral adaptation to multiple HLA alleles across multiple genes, and provides additional support for the suggestion, based on minimizing differences between vaccine and circulating strains, that vaccine effectiveness may be enhanced by using a consensus (14) or ancestral (15) sequence. The ability of viruses to restrict adaptive immune responses and evade those that are formed contributes to persistence and is a major barrier to vaccine development. These data demonstrate that although immune responses diminish the fitness of viral variants, viral divergence occurs in persistently infected hosts. Nonetheless, this divergence actually reduces the fitness of the virus in the population (that is, in other hosts). From an evolutionary perspective, these forces maintain the virus as a distinct pathogen. However, the data also suggest that immune responses to consensus sequences (rather than a product based on the sequence in a given host) would establish the highest barrier to viral escape and consequently the most effective protection against chronic infection.
S → G
V → E
V → I
K → R
T → A
K → E
I → L
P→ L
aChanges that were not located in demonstrated epitopes and not located in the envelope region (FIG. 2)
bPosition in H77 polyprotein (Genbank accession AF009606)
camino acids inferred from cDNA clones obtained at t0 and t6, respectively. Changes
This application claims the benefit and priority of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/648,550, filed Jan. 31, 2005, and Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/648,877, filed Feb. 2, 2005, both of which are herein incorporated by reference for all purposes.
This invention was made with Government support under DA-11880, DK-57998 and AI-40035 awarded by the PHS. The Government has certain rights in the invention.
| Filing Document | Filing Date | Country | Kind | 371c Date |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PCT/US2006/003514 | 1/31/2006 | WO | 00 | 10/13/2008 |
| Publishing Document | Publishing Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| WO2006/086188 | 8/17/2006 | WO | A |
| Number | Name | Date | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5747241 | Miyamura et al. | May 1998 | A |
| Number | Date | Country |
|---|---|---|
| WO 9605315 | Feb 1996 | WO |
| 0190197 | Nov 2001 | WO |
| WO 03022880 | Mar 2003 | WO |
| 03031588 | Apr 2003 | WO |
| WO 2004003141 | Jan 2004 | WO |
| WO 2005118626 | Dec 2005 | WO |
| WO 2006086188 | Aug 2006 | WO |
| Number | Date | Country | |
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| 20090186045 A1 | Jul 2009 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
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| 60648550 | Jan 2005 | US | |
| 60648877 | Feb 2005 | US |
