Patent Application
20200010832
This invention relates to neuroprotective molecules and methods of treating neurological diseases associated with neuron death, inducing stress granule formation in a cell, inhibiting translation in a cell, and decreasing stress-induced cell death.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease distinguished by a specific loss of motor neurons in the brain, brain stem, and spinal cord. Initial symptoms of loss of motor neuron activity, including distal muscle weakness and wasting, increased muscle tone with hyperreflexia, and diaphragmatic and/or bulbar weakness are first noticed at an average age of 55. Death occurs from respiratory failure at an average of 4 years after disease onset. The only recognized treatment for ALS is riluzole which extends survival by only about 3 months with no improvement in motor muscular function.
Although ALS is a rare disease (˜1-2 persons per 100,000 population), an understanding of its pathogenesis is likely to impact other neurological diseases that share some pathological features (e.g., frontotemporal lobal degeneration, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, spinal motor atrophy and fragile X mental retardation). Approximately 10% of ALS cases are familial and the rest are sporadic. Mutations in the Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase 1 gene (ALS1; SOD1) have been identified in ˜20% of familial and in ˜3% of sporadic ALS patients, making SOD1 mutations the most common cause of this disease. The RNA-binding proteins TDP-43 and FUS/TLS are the next most commonly mutated genes, each of which is responsible for ˜4% of familial cases. A number of dominantly-inherited genes associated with atypical ALS phenotypes are each responsible for 1-3% of ALS cases (e.g., ALS with dementia/parkinsonism: microtubule-associated protein tau (MAPT); progressive lower motor neuron disease: dynactin subunit 1 (DCTN1); ALS8: vesicle-associated membrane protein-associated protein B/C (VAPB); juvenile onset autosomal dominant ALS: senataxin (SETX)).
ALS genes involved in RNA metabolism include TDP-43 and FUS/TLS: two RNA-binding proteins implicated in transcription, splicing, and translation. Both of these proteins are components of stress granules: cytoplasmic foci that are characterized as signaling centers assembled from proteins and untranslated mRNAs in cells exposed to adverse conditions. ALS-linked genes associated with RNA/stress response pathways include: mutant SOD1 which inactivates a retrograde transport pathway that causes proteins to accumulate in the endoplasmic reticulum and trigger the unfolded protein response (UPR), a pro-survival program; vesicle-associated membrane protein (VAPB), an endoplasmic reticulum protein that interacts with ATF6, a UPR-activated transcription factor; senataxin, a DNA/RNA helicase associated with tRNA metabolism and the oxidative stress response; and angiogenin (ANG), a stress-activated ribonuclease that promotes motor neuron survival and extends the survival of SOD1G93A mice in a murine model of ALS. These genes indicate an association between mutations in proteins involved in stress granule formation and ALS, a neurological disorder associated with neuron death.
Provided herein are neuroprotective molecules that contain a sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides that is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human tRNA that are useful for inducing or increasing stress granule formation in a cell, decreasing protein translation in a cell, reducing stress-induced cell death, and treating a neurological disorder associated with neuron death in a subject. The invention is based on the discovery that these neuroprotective molecules are taken up by motor neurons in the absence of transfection agents, induce stress granule formation in motor neurons, and confer protection against stress-induced motor neuron death.
Provided herein are neuroprotective molecules containing a sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides that is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human RNA, and at least four (e.g., at least five or six) contiguous guanosine-containing nucleotides, where the sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides contains a D-loop stem structure, the at least four contiguous guanosine-containing nucleotides are located at the 5′ end of the neuroprotective molecule, and the neuroprotective molecule contains at least one (e.g., at least two, three, or four) deoxyribonucleotide. In some embodiments, the sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human tRNA having a sequence selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID NOS: 4, 5, 8-11, 13-17, 32, 37, and 40-173.
Also provided are neuroprotective molecules containing a sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides that is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human tRNA selected from the group of: tRNAArg, tRNAAsp, tRNAGlu, tRNAGln, tRNAGly, tRNAHis, tRNAIle, tRNALeu, tRNALys, tRNAMet, tRNAPro, tRNASeC, tRNASer, tRNASup, tRNAThr, tRNATrp, tRNATyr, tRNAVal, tRNAAsn, and tRNAPhe; and at least four (e.g., at least five or six) contiguous guanosine-containing nucleotides, where the sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides contains a D-loop stem structure and the at least four contiguous guanosine-containing nucleotides are located at the 5′ end of the neuroprotective molecule. In some embodiments, the sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human tRNA having a sequence selected from the group of SEQ ID NOS: 5, 8, 9, 11, 14-17, 32, 37, 56, 57, and 63-173. In some embodiments, the sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human tRNA having a sequence selected from the group of SEQ ID NOS: 11 and 107-116.
In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecule further comprises a 5′-monophosphate. In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecule contains at least one modified nucleotide (e.g, a nucleotide containing a modified base and/or a modified sugar). In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecule contains at least one modification in the phosphate backbone. In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecule contains a 5′ and/or a 3′ protective group. In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecule has a total length of between 39 to 60 nucleotides (e.g., 39 to 50 nucleotides or 50 to 60 nucleotides).
Also provided are pharmaceutical compositions that contain at least one neuroprotective molecule described herein (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein).
Also provided are methods of inducing or increasing stress granule formation in a cell that include administering to a cell a neuroprotective molecule (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein) or an isolated C-myc oligonucleotide containing the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 174, where the neuroprotective molecule or the isolated C-myc oligonucleotide is administered in an amount sufficient to induce or increase stress granule formation in the cell.
Also provided are methods of decreasing protein translation in a cell that include administering to a cell a neuroprotective molecule (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein) or an isolated C-myc oligonucleotide containing the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 174, where the neuroprotective molecule or the isolated C-myc oligonucleotide is administered in an amount sufficient to decrease protein translation in the cell.
Also provided are methods of decreasing stress-induced cell death that include administering to the cell a neuroprotective molecule (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein) or an isolated C-myc oligonucleotide containing the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 174, where the neuroprotective molecule or the isolated C-myc oligonucleotide is administered in an amount sufficient to decrease stress-induced cell death.
In some embodiments, the cell is in vitro. In some embodiments, the cell is in vivo. In some embodiments, the cell is a neuron (e.g., a motor neuron).
Also provided are methods of treating a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (necrosis and/or apoptosis, or stress-induced cell death) in a subject that include administering a neuroprotective molecule (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein) or an isolated C-myc oligonucleotide containing the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 174, where the neuroprotective molecule or the isolated C-myc oligonucleotide is administered in an amount sufficient to treat the neurological disorder associated with neuron death in the subject.
In some embodiments, the neurological disorder associated with neuron death is selected from the group of: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, and stroke. In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecule or the isolated C-myc oligonucleotide is administered intravenously, intraarterially, intracranially, ocularly, intraperitoneally, subcutaneously, or intramuscularly. In some embodiments, the subject is administered at least one additional therapeutic agent.
Also provided are methods of identifying a candidate translation inhibitor nucleic acid that include (a) attaching to the 5′ end of a nucleic acid sequence of between 20-50 nucleotides at least four (e.g., at least five or six) guanosine-containing nucleotides, and (b) determining the level of protein translation in the presence of the molecule produced in (a), where a decrease in the level of protein translation in the presence of the molecule produced in (a) relative to the level of protein translation in the absence of the molecule produced in (a) identifies the molecule produced in (a) as a candidate translation inhibitory nucleic acid.
In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence of between 20-50 nucleotides contains at least 50% (e.g., at least 55%, 60%, 65%, or 70%) guanosine-containing/cytosine-containing nucleotides. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence of between 20-50 nucleotides is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence in a mature human tRNA sequence. In some embodiments, the level of protein translation is determined in a cell. In some embodiments, the cell is a fibroblast or a motor neuron. In some embodiments, the cell is human. In some embodiments, the level of protein translation is determined in a cell lysate (e.g., a rabbit reticulocyte lysate).
By the phrase “mature human tRNA” is meant a human transfer RNA molecule in which the intron sequences have been removed.
By the phrase “D-loop stem structure” is meant a secondary loop structure present in mature human tRNAs that is formed by approximately nucleotides 5 to 28 of a mature human tRNA or a significantly similar stem-loop structure. Several exemplary three-dimensional structures of mature human tRNAs have been described and modeled by those skilled in the art.
By the phrase “deoxyribonucleotide” is meant a nucleotide that contains a 2′-deoxyribose. This term also includes nucleotides that contain modifications at other positions within the deoxyribose sugar or in the attached base.
By the phrase “guanosine-containing nucleotide” is meant a nucleotide that contains a guanosine or a modified guanosine. In some embodiments, the guanosine-containing nucleotide has the ability to form a G-quadruplex.
By the phrase “cytosine-containing nucleotide” is meant a nucleotide that contains a cytosine or a modified cytosine.
By the term “G-quadraplex” is meant a square structural arrangement of four guanines that is stabilized by Hoogsteen hydrogen bonds. A G-quadraplex can also be stabilized by the presence of a monovalent cation (e.g., potassium) in the center of the tetrad. A G-quadraplex can be formed by a DNA, a RNA, an LNA, or a PNA molecule (or any combination thereof). In some embodiments, the G-quadraplex is formed by four guanines that are present in the same molecule (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules or C-myc oligonucleotides described herein).
By the term “modified nucleotide” is meant a nucleotide that has a modification in its sugar and/or in its base. Non-limiting examples of modified nucleotides are described herein. Additional examples of modified nucleotides are known in the art.
By the phrase “5′ or 3′ protective group” is meant a moiety that is attached to the 5′- or the 3′-end of an oligonucleotide that prevents nuclease degradation or decreases (e.g., significantly decreases) the rate of nuclease degradation of the oligonucleotide. In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecules or the C-myc oligonucleotides described herein contain a 5′ and/or 3′ protective group. Non-limiting examples of 5′ and 3′ protective groups are described herein. Additional examples of 5′ and 3′ protective groups are known in the art.
By the term “stress granule formation” is meant the formation or detection of at least one stress granule in a cell. Stress granule formation in a cell can be detected, for example, by microscopy (e.g., immunofluorescence microscopy) or the detection of phosphorylated eIF2α. Additional methods for detecting stress granule formation in a cell are described herein and are known in the art.
By the term “stress granule” is meant an aggregate of proteins and mRNAs that form in a cell under stress conditions. The poly(A)-mRNAs in a stress granule are present in stalled pre-initiation complexes. A stress granule can contain one or more (e.g., two, three, four, or five) of the following proteins/complexes, including but not limited to: 40S ribosomal subunits, eIF4E, eIF4G, eIF4A, eIF4B, poly(A) binding protein (Pabp), eIF3, and eIF2. Additional examples of proteins that can be found in stress granules are described herein. Additional examples of proteins that can be found in stress granules are known in the art (see, for example, Buchan et al., Mol. Cell 36:932, 2009).
By the term “protein translation” is meant the synthesis of a polypeptide from a messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecule (e.g., a capped or uncapped mRNA molecule). The mRNA molecule typically contains a polyA 3′-tail. Protein translation can be performed in a cell or in a cellular lysate. Methods for detecting protein translation or the rate of protein translation are described herein. Additional methods for detecting protein translation or the rate of protein translation are known in the art.
By the term “neurological disorder associated with neuron death” is meant a neurological disease that is characterized by neuron death (e.g., motor neuron death) or has an etiology that involves neuron death (e.g., motor neuron death). Neuron death (apoptosis or necrosis) in these disorders can occur by a variety of different means (e.g., oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation). Methods for detecting neuron death in vivo or in vitro are described herein and are known in the art. Non-limiting examples of neurological disorders associated with neuron death are described herein. Additional examples of neurological disorders associated with neuron death are known in the art. In general, the methods do not require that cell death be detected in a subject prior to treatment, if the subject has a disorder known in the art to be associated with neuron death.
By the term “treating” is meant decreasing the number of symptoms or decreasing (e.g., a significant or detectable decrease) the severity, frequency, or duration of one or more symptoms of a disease in a subject. The term “treating” can also include decreasing (e.g., a significant or detectable decrease) the rate of neuron death in a subject having a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., compared to the rate of neuron death in the same subject prior to treatment or compared to the rate of neuron death in a control subject having the same disease but not receiving treatment or receiving a different treatment). A decrease in neuron death or the rate of neuron death in a subject can be assessed in a subject by a decrease in the rate of the development of one or more symptoms of a neurological disease associated with neuron death or a decrease in the worsening or exacerbation of one of more symptoms of a neurological disease associated with neuron death in a subject.
By the term “stress-induced cell death” is meant cell death that is triggered by or occurs in response to a cellular stress condition (e.g., oxidative stress, neuroexicitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation). Methods for detecting stress-induced cell death are described herein. Additional methods of detecting stress-induced cell death are known in the art.
Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Methods and materials are described herein for use in the present invention; other, suitable methods and materials known in the art can also be used. The materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. All publications, patent applications, patents, sequences, database entries, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control.
Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description and figures, and from the claims.
Neuroprotective molecules that are capable of inhibiting protein translation, inducing or increasing stress granule formation in a cell (e.g., a motor neuron), and decreasing stress-induced cell death (e.g., motor neuron death) have been discovered. These neuroprotective molecules are based, in part, on sequences present within mature human tRNAs. Some of these neuroprotective molecules have been shown to be taken up by motor neurons in the absence of transfection agents. The structural features of the neuroprotective molecules are described below, as well as their use in methods of inhibiting protein translation in a cell, inducing or increasing stress granule formation in a cell, reducing stress-induced cell death, and treating a neurological disorder associated with neuron death. Also provided herein are methods of identifying a candidate translation inhibitory nucleic acid.
Provided herein are neuroprotective molecules containing a sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides (e.g., 25-30 nucleotides or 30-35 nucleotides) that is at least 80% identical (e.g., at least 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical) to a contiguous sequence between nucleotide 1 to nucleotide 50 (e.g., between nucleotide 1 to nucleotide 30) of a mature human tRNA (e.g., any of the mature human tRNA sequences described herein or known in the art), and at least four (e.g., five, six, seven, or eight) guanosine-containing nucleotides, where the sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides contains a D-loop stem structure, the at least four contiguous guanosine-containing nucleotides are located at the 5′-end of the neuroprotective molecule, and the neuroprotective molecule contains at least one (e.g., two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or ten) deoxyribonucleotide. In some embodiments, the sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence of between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human tRNA having a sequence selected from: SEQ ID NOS: 4, 5, 8-11, 13-17, 32, 37, and 40-173.
Also provided are neuroprotective molecules containing a sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides (e.g., 25-30 nucleotides or 30-35 nucleotides) that is at least 80% identical (e.g., at least 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical) to a contiguous sequence between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 (e.g., between nucleotide 1 to nucleotide 30) of a mature human tRNA selected from the group of: tRNAArg, tRNAAsp, tGluGlu, tRNAGln, tRNAGly, tRNAHis, tRNAIle, tRNALeu, tRNALys, tRNAMet, tRNAPro, tRNASeC, tRNASer, tRNASup, tRNAThr, tRNATrp, tRNATyr, tRNAVal, tRNAAsn, and tRNAPhe (e.g., any of the sequences described herein or known in the art), and at least four (e.g., five, six, seven, or eight) contiguous guanosine-containing nucleotides, where the sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides contains a D-loop stem structure and the at least four contiguous guanosine-containing nucleotides are located at the 5′ end of the neuroprotective molecule. In some embodiments, the sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human tRNA having a sequence selected from the group of SEQ ID NOS: 5, 8, 9, 11, 14-17, 32, 37, 56, 57, and 63-173. In some embodiments, the sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human tRNA having a sequence selected from the group of SEQ ID NOS: 11 and 107-116.
The comparison of sequences and determination of percent identity between two sequences can be accomplished using a mathematical algorithm. The percent identity between two amino acid sequences is determined using the Needleman and Wunsch J. Mol. Biol. 48:444-453, 1970) algorithm, which has been incorporated into the GAP program in the GCG software package (available the at gcg.com), using either a Blossum 62 matrix or a PAM250 matrix, and a gap weight of 16 and a length weight of 1. The percent identity between two nucleotide sequences is determined using the GAP program in the GCG software package (available the Accelrys Inc. website), using a NWSgapdna.CMP matrix and a gap weight of 40 and a length weight of 1. The calculation of percent identity as described herein, recognizes a uracil-containing nucleotide (deoxyuracil and ribouracil) as being the same as a “T” (deoxythymine or ribothymine).
In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecules can contain a sequence of 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, or 35 contiguous nucleotides that is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence present between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human tRNA. In some embodiments, the contiguous sequence between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human tRNA starts at nucleotide number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 of the mature human tRNA sequence.
Non-limiting examples of mature human tRNAs are listed below. Any of the human tRNA molecules described herein or known in the art can be used to design the neuroprotective molecules described herein.
Non-limiting exemplary Ala tRNA sequences are listed below.
Ala tRNA
A non-limiting example of a Asn tRNA sequence is gtctctgtgg cgcaatcggt tagcgcgttc ggctgttaac (SEQ ID NO: 172). A non-limiting example of a Phe tRNA sequence is gccgaaatag ctcagttggg agagcgttag actgaagatc (SEQ ID NO: 173). Additional non-limiting examples of human mature tRNA sequences that can be used to generate any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein are listed in the Sequence Appendix and are described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 20110046209 (herein incorporated by reference). Additional examples of human mature tRNA sequences that can be used to generate any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein are known in the art (see, NCBI website, the UCSC genomic tRNA database website (address: gtrnadb.ucsc.edu), and the Unversitat Leipzig tRNAdb website (address:trandb.bioinf.uni-leipzig.edu).
The sequence of 25-35 contiguous nucleotides that is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence present between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human tRNA incorporated in the neuroprotective molecules described herein should be sufficient to allow the formation of a D-stem loop structure in the neuroprotective molecule. The D-stem loop structure of mature human tRNAs is typically comprised of a region extending from about nucleotide 6 to about nucleotide 27. The formation of a D-loop stem structure within the neuroprotective molecules described herein can be assessed by its gel migration (e.g., in the presence or absence of denaturing agents) or by circular dichroism. Additional methods for the detection of the D-loop stem structure within a nucleic acid are known in the art.
In some embodiments, the guanosine-containing nucleotide can contain a ribose. In some embodiments, the guanosine-containing nucleotide can contain a deoxyribose. In some embodiments, the guanosine-containing nucleotide can contain a modified sugar (e.g., any of the modified sugars described herein). In some embodiments, the guanosine-containing nucleotide can contain modified guanosine (e.g., 7-methyl guanosine or 6-thioguanosine). In preferred embodiments, the at least four contiguous guanosine-containing nucleotides form a G-quadraplex (e.g., a G-quadraplex with guanosines within the neuroprotective molecule).
The neuroprotective molecules described herein can contain one or more (e.g., two, three, four, of five) modified nucleotides. The modified nucleotides can contain a modified base or a modified sugar. Non-limiting examples of modified bases include: xanthine, diaminopurine, 8-oxo-N6-methyladenine, 7-deazaxanthine, 7-deazaguanine, N4, N4-ethanocytosin, N6, N6-ethano-2,6-diaminopurine, 5-methylcytosine, 5-(C3-C6)-alkynyl-cytosine, 5-fluorouracil, 5-bromouracil, pseudoisocytosine, 2-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-triazolopyridin, isocytosine, isoguanine, and inosine. Additional non-limiting examples of modified bases include those nucleobases described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,432,272 and 3,687,808 (herein incorporated by reference), Freier et al., Nucleic Acid Res. 25:4429-4443, 1997; Sanghvi, Antisense Research and Application, Chapter 15, Ed. S. T. Crooke and B. Lebleu, CRC Press, 1993; Englisch, et al., Angewandte Chemie 30:613-722, 1991, Kroschwitz, Concise Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 858-859, 1990; and Cook, Anti-Cancer Drug Design 6:585-607, 1991. Additional non-limiting examples of modified bases include universal bases (e.g., 3-nitropyrole and 5-nitroindole). Other modified bases include pyrene and pyridyloxazole derivatives, pyrenyl, pyrenylmethylglycerol derivatives, and the like. Other preferred universal bases include pyrrole, diazole, or triazole derivatives, including those universal bases known in the art.
In some embodiments, the modified nucleotide can contain a modification in its sugar moiety. A non-limiting examples of modified nucleotides that contains a modified sugar are locked nucleic acids (LNAs). LNA monomers are described in WO 99/14226 and U.S. Patent Application Publications Nos. 20110076675, 20100286044, 20100279895, 20100267018, 20100261175, 20100035968, 20090286753, 20090023594, 20080096191, 20030092905, 20020128381, and 20020115080 (herein incorporated by reference). Additional non-limiting examples of LNAs are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,043,060, 6,268,490, WO 01/07455, WO 01/00641, WO 98/39352, WO 00/56746, WO 00/56748, and WO 00/66604 (herein incorporated by reference), as well as in Morita et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 12(1):73-76, 2002; Hakansson et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 11(7):935-938, 2001; Koshkin et al., J. Org. Chem. 66(25):8504-8512, 2001; Kvaerno et al., J. Org. Chem. 66(16):5498-5503, 2001; Hakansson et al., J. Org. Chem. 65(17):5161-5166, 2000; Kvaerno et al., J. Org. Chem. 65(17):5167-5176, 2000; Pfundheller et al., Nucleosides Nucleotides 18(9):2017-2030, 1999; and Kumar et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 8(16):2219-2222, 1998. In some embodiments, the modified nucleotide is an oxy-LNA monomer, such as those described in WO 03/020739.
The neuroprotective molecules described herein can also contain a modification in the phosphodiester backbone. For example, at least one linkage between any two contiguous (adjoining) nucleotides in the neuroprotective molecule can be connected by a moiety containing 2 to 4 groups/atoms selected from the group of: —CH2—, —O—, —S—, —NRH—, >C═O, >C═NRH, >C═S, —Si(R″)2—, —SO—, —S(O)2—, —P(O)2—, —PO(BH3)—, —P(O,S)—, —P(S)2—, —PO(R″)—, —PO(OCH3)—, and —PO(NHRH)—, where RH is selected from hydrogen and C1-4-alkyl, and R″ is selected from C1-6-alkyl and phenyl. Illustrative examples of such linkages are —CH2—CH2—CH2—, —CH2—CO—CH2—, —CH2—CHOH—CH2—, —O—CH2—O—, —O—CH2—CH2—, —O—CH2—CH═ (including R5 when used as a linkage to a succeeding monomer), —CH2—CH2—O—, —NRH—CH2—CH2—, —CH2—CH2—NRH—, —CH2—NRH—CH2—, —O—CH2—CH2—NRH—, —NRH—CO—O—, —NRH—CO—NRH—, —NRH—CS—NRH—, —NRH—C(═NRH)—NRH—, —NRH—CO—CH2—NRH—, —O—CO—O—, —O—CO—CH2—O—, —O—CH2—CO—O—, —CH2—CO—NRH—, —O—CO—NRH—, —NRH—CO—CH2—, —O—CH2—CO—NRH—, —O—CH2—CH2—NRH—, —CH═N—O—, —CH2—NRH—O—, —CH2—O—N═ (including R5 when used as a linkage to a succeeding monomer), —CH2—O—NRH—, —CO—NRH—CH2—, —CH2—NRH—O—, —CH2—NRH—CO—, —O—NRH—CH2—, —O—NRH—, —O—CH2—S—, —S—CH2—O—, —CH2—CH2—S—, —O—CH2—CH2—S—, —S—CH2—CH═ (including R5 when used as a linkage to a succeeding monomer), —S—CH2—CH2—, —S—CH2—CH2—O—, —S—CH2—CH2—S—, —CH2—S—CH2—, —CH2—SO—CH2—, —CH2—SO2—CH2—, —O—SO—O—, —O—S(O)2—O—, —O—S(O)2—CH2—, —O—S(O)2—NRH—, —NRH—S(O)2—CH2—, —O—S(O)2—CH2—, —O—P(O)2—O—, —O—P(O,S)—O—, —O—P(S)2—O—, —S—P(O)2—O—, —S—P(O,S)—O—, —S—P(S)2—O—, —O—P(O,S)—S—, —O—P(S)2—S—, —S—P(O)2—S—, —S—P(O,S)—S—, —S—P(S)2—S—, —O—PO(R″)—O—, —O—PO(OCH3)—O—, —O—PO—(OCH2CH3)—O—, —O—PO(OCH2S—R)—O—, —O—PO(BH3)—O—, —O—PO(NHRN)—O—, —O—P(O)2—NRH—, —NRH—P(O)2—O—, —O—P(O,NRH)2—O—, —CH2—P(O)2—O—, —O—P(O)2—CH2—, and —O—Si(R″)2—O—; among which —CH2—CO—NRH—, —CH2—NRH—O—, —S—CH2—O—, —O—P(O)2—O—, —O—P(O,S)—O—, —O—P(S)2—O—, —NRH—P(O)2—O—, —O—P(O,NRH)—O—, —O—PO(R″)—O—, —O—PO(CH3)—O—, and —O—PO(NHRN)—O—, where RH is selected form hydrogen and C1-4-alkyl, and R″ is selected from C1-6-alkyl and phenyl. Further illustrative examples are given in Mesmaeker et. al., Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 5:343-355, 1995; and Freier et al., Nucleic Acids Research 25:4429-43, 1997. The left-hand side of the inter-nucleoside linkage is bound to the 5-membered ring as substituent P* at the 3′-position, whereas the right-hand side is bound to the 5′-position of a preceding monomer.
In some embodiments, any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein can be modified at either the 3′ and/or 5′ end by any type of modification known in the art. For example, either or both ends may be capped with a protecting group, attached to a flexible linking group, attached to a reactive group to aid in attachment to the substrate surface. Non-limiting examples of 3′ and/or 5′ blocking groups include: 2-amino-2-oxyethyl, 2-aminobenzoyl, 4-aminobenzoyl, acetyl, acetyloxy, (acetylamino)methyl, 3-(9-acridinyl), tricyclo[3.3.1.1(3,7)]dec-1-yloxy, 2-aminoethyl, propenyl, (9-anthracenylmethoxy)carbonyl, (1,1-dmimethylpropoxy)carbonyl, (1,1-dimethylpropoxy)carbonyl, [1-methyl-1-[4-(phenylazo)phenyl]ethoxy]carbonyl, bromoacetyl, (benzoylamino)methyl, (2-bromoethoxy)carbonyl, (diphenylmethoxy)carbonyl, 1-methyl-3-oxo-3-phenyl-1-propenyl, (3-bromo-2-nitrophenyl)thio, (1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl, [[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]ethyl, 2-(phenylmethoxy)phenoxy, (1=[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl-1-methylethoxy) carbonyl, bromo, (4-bromophenyl)sulfonyl, 1H-benzotriazol-1-yl, [(phenylmethyl)thio]carbonyl, [(phenylmetyl)thio]methyl, 2-methylpropyl, 1,1-dimethylethyl, benzoyl, diphenylmethyl, phenylmethyl, carboxyacetyl, aminocarbonyl, chlorodifluoroacetyl, trifluoromethyl, cyclohexylcarbonyl, cycloheptyl, cyclohexyl, cyclohexylacetyl, chloro, carboxymethyl, cyclopentylcarbonyl, cyclopentyl, cyclopropylmethyl, ethoxycarbonyl, ethyl, fluoro, formyl, 1-oxohexyl, iodo, methyl, 2-methoxy-2-oxoethyl, nitro, azido, phenyl, 2-carboxybenzoyl, 4-pyridinylmethyl, 2-piperidinyl, propyl, 1-methylethyl, sulfo, and ethenyl. Additional examples of 5′ and 3′ blocking groups are known in the art. In some embodiments, the 5′ and/or 3′ blocking groups prevent nuclease degradation of the neuroprotective molecule.
The neurorprotective molecules described herein can be synthesized using any methods known in the art for synthesizing nucleic acids (see, e.g., Usman et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 109:7845, 1987; Scaringe et al., Nucleic Acid Res. 18:5433, 1990; Wincott et al., Methods Mol. Biol. 74:59, 1997; and Milligan, Nucleic Acid Res. 21:8783, 1987). These typically make use of common nucleic acid protecting and coupling groups. Synthesis can be performed on commercial equipment designed for this purpose, e.g., a 394 Applied Biosystems, Inc synthesizer, using protocols supplied by the manufacturer. Additional methods for synthesizing the neuroprotective molecules described herein are known in the art. Alternatively, neuroprotective molecules of the invention can be specially ordered from commercial vendors that synthesize oligonucleotides.
Any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein can be tested for activity (e.g., ability to inhibit or decrease protein translation, the ability to induce or increase stress granule formation in a cell, the ability to translocate into a cell in the absence of cell transfection reagents, the ability to treat a neurological disorder associated with neuron death, or the ability to confer upon cells (e.g., neurons) resistance to stress-induced cell death). Methods for detecting or assessing protein translation (e.g., the amount of translation over a specific period of time or rate of protein translation), methods for detecting or assessing the formation of at least one stress granule in a cell, methods of detecting or assessing the cellular uptake, methods of determining treatment of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death in a subject, and methods of determining whether a neuroprotective molecule confers protection against stress-induced cell death are described herein. Additional methods for assessing these activities are known in the art.
Also provided herein are pharmaceutical compositions that contain at least one (e.g., one, two, three, or four) of the neuroprotective molecules (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein) or C-myc oligonucleotides described herein. Two or more (e.g., two, three, or four) of any of the neuroprotective molecules or C-myc oligonucleotides described herein can be present in a pharmaceutical composition in any combination. The pharmaceutical compositions may be formulated in any manner known in the art.
Pharmaceutical compositions are formulated to be compatible with their intended route of administration (e.g., intravenous, intracranial, ocular, intraarterial, intramuscular, intradermal, subcutaneous, or intraperitoneal). The compositions can include a sterile diluent (e.g., sterile water or saline), a fixed oil, polyethylene glycol, glycerine, propylene glycol or other synthetic solvents, antibacterial or antifungal agents such as benzyl alcohol or methyl parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, ascorbic acid, thimerosal, and the like, antioxidants such as ascorbic acid or sodium bisulfite, chelating agents such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, buffers such as acetates, citrates, or phosphates, and isotonic agents such as sugars (e.g., dextrose), polyalcohols (e.g., manitol or sorbitol), or salts (e.g., sodium chloride), or any combination thereof. Liposomal suspensions can also be used as pharmaceutically acceptable carriers (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,522,811). Preparations of the compositions can be formulated and enclosed in ampules, disposable syringes, or multiple dose vials. Where required (as in, for example, injectable formulations), proper fluidity can be maintained by, for example, the use of a coating such as lecithin, or a surfactant. Absorption of the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide can be prolonged by including an agent that delays absorption (e.g., aluminum monostearate and gelatin). Alternatively, controlled release can be achieved by implants and microencapsulated delivery systems, which can include biodegradable, biocompatible polymers (e.g., ethylene vinyl acetate, polyanhydrides, polyglycolic acid, collagen, polyorthoesters, and polylactic acid; Alza Corporation and Nova Pharmaceutical, Inc.).
Compositions containing one or more of any of the neuroprotective molecules or C-myc oligonucleotides described herein can be formulated for parenteral (e.g., intravenous, intraarterial, intramuscular, intradermal, subcutaneous, or intraperitoneal), intracranial, or ocular administration in dosage unit form (i.e., physically discrete units containing a predetermined quantity of active compound for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage).
Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of compositions can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals (e.g., monkeys). One can, for example, determine the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population): the therapeutic index being the ratio of LD50:ED50. Agents that exhibit high therapeutic indices are preferred. Where an agent exhibits an undesirable side effect, care should be taken to minimize potential damage (i.e., reduce unwanted side effects). Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy can be determined by other standard pharmaceutical procedures.
Data obtained from cell culture assays and animal studies can be used in formulating an appropriate dosage of any given agent for use in a subject (e.g., a human). A therapeutically effective amount of the one or more (e.g., one, two, three, or four) neuroprotective molecules or C-myc oligonucleotides (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules or C-myc oligonucleotides described herein) will be an amount that treats a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) in a subject (e.g., a human), decreases the severity, frequency, and/or duration of one or more symptoms of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) in a subject (e.g., a human), decreases the rate of neuron death (apoptosis and/or necrosis) in a subject (e.g., a human) having a neurological disorder associated with neuron death, induces or increases stress granule formation in a neuron (e.g., a motor neuron) in a subject having a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., amyotrophic lateral sclerosis), and/or decreases or inhibits protein translation in a neuron (e.g, a motor neuron) in a subject (e.g., a human) having a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., as compared to a control subject having the same disease but not receiving treatment or a different treatment, or the same subject prior to treatment). The effectiveness and dosing of any of the neuroprotective molecules or C-myc oligonucleotides described herein can be determined by a health care professional using methods known in the art, as well as by the observation of one or more symptoms of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death in a subject (e.g., a human). Certain factors may influence the dosage and timing required to effectively treat a subject (e.g., the severity of the disease or disorder, previous treatments, the general health and/or age of the subject, and the presence of other diseases).
Exemplary doses include milligram or microgram amounts of any of the neuroprotective molecules or C-myc oligonucleotides described herein per kilogram of the subject's weight (e.g., about 100 ng/kg to about 500 mg/kg; 500 ng/kg to about 1 μg/kg; 1 μg/kg to about 500 mg/kg; about 100 μg/kg to about 500 mg/kg; about 100 μg/kg to about 50 mg/kg; about 10 μg/kg to about 5 mg/kg; about 10 μg/kg to about 0.5 mg/kg; or about 1 μg/kg to about 50 μg/kg). While these doses cover a broad range, one of ordinary skill in the art will understand that therapeutic agents, including the neuroprotective molecules and the C-myc oligonucleotides, vary in their potency, and effective amounts can be determined by methods known in the art. Typically, relatively low doses are administered at first, and the attending health care professional (in the case of therapeutic application) or a researcher (when still working at the development stage) can subsequently and gradually increase the dose until an appropriate response is obtained. In addition, it is understood that the specific dose level for any particular subject will depend upon a variety of factors including the activity of the specific compound employed, the age, body weight, general health, gender, and diet of the subject, the time of administration, the route of administration, the rate of excretion, and the half-life of the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide in vivo.
The pharmaceutical compositions can be included in a container, pack, or dispenser together with instructions for administration.
Provided herein are methods of inducing or increasing stress granule formation in a cell that include administering to a cell a neuroprotective molecule (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein) or an isolated C-myc oligonucleotide containing the sequence of GGGAGGGTGG GGAGGGTGGGG (SEQ ID NO: 174) (e.g., any of the C-myc oligonucleotides described herein), wherein the neuroprotective molecule or isolated C-myc oligonucleotide is administered in an amount sufficient to induce or increase (e.g., a significant or detectable increase) stress granule formation in the cell. In some embodiments, the increase in stress granule formation is the formation of at least one stress granule in a cell that does not contain stress granules prior to treatment.
Stress granules are formed in the cytosol and nucleus of mammalian cells (e.g., neurons) in response to stress stimuli (e.g., oxidative stress). Stress granules contain both proteins and messenger RNAs (e.g., polyA mRNAs) that are stalled in translation pre-initiation complexes. Stress granules range between 100 nm to 200 nm in size and are not surrounded by a cellular membrane. A variety of proteins have been identified as being present within stress granules and the presence of stress granules can be identified by the localization of one or more (e.g., two, three, or four) of the following proteins/complexes in distinct foci within a cell (e.g., within the cytoplasm or nucleus of a cell): 40S ribosomal subunit, Ago2, AKAP350, APOBEC3G, Ataxin-2/Pbp1, BRF1, Calreticulin, Caprin1, CCAR1, Ccr4, CIRP, CPEB, CUG-BP1, Dcp1/Dcp1a, Dcp2; DDX1, DDX3/Ded1, DIC1/DHC1, DIS1, Eap1, Ebs1, Edc1-2, Edc3, eIF2, eIF2B, eIF3, eIF4A, eIF4E, eIF4E-T, eIF4G, eRF1, eRF3, FAK, FAST, FBP/KSRP, FMRP, FXR1P, FXR2P, G3BP, Gbp2, Ge-1/Hed1s, Grb7, GW182, hMex3A, hMex3B, hnRNP A1, hnRNP A3, hnRNP K, hnRNP Q, Hrp1, Htt, Hsp27, HuD, HuR, IP5K, Importin-8, KHC/KLC, Lin28, LINE1 ORF1p, Lsm1, MBNL1, MEX67, MLN51, Musahi, Nrp1, NXF7, p97/NAT1, PABP/Pab1, Pan2/3, Pat1, PCBP2, Plakophilin 1/3, PMR1, Pop2/Caf1, Prohibitin 2, PRTB, Pum1, Pum2, RACK1, RBM42, Rap55/Sed6, RCK/Dhh1, RHAU, Roquin, Rpm2, RSK2, Sam68, SERBP1, SGNP, Smaug 1, Staufen, SMN, TDP-43, TDRD3, TIA-1/Pub1, TIA-R/Ngr1, TNRC6B, TRAF2, TTP, Upf1, Upf2, Upf3, Vts1, Xm1, YB-1, Ygr250c, and ZBP1. Typically, the presence of stress granules in a cell are detected using microscopy (e.g., immunofluorescence microscopy) using one or more antibodies that recognize the localization one or more of the following proteins in discrete foci in the cell: 40S ribosomal subunit, eIF4E, eIF4G, eIF4A, eIF4B, poly(A) binding protein (Pabp), eIF3, and eIF2. The presence of a stress granule can also be detected by assessment of the level of phosphorylated eIF2α present in the cell (e.g., an increased level of phospho-eIF2α indicates the presence of stress granules in the cell). Additional methods for detecting the formation or presence of stress granules in the cell are known in the art.
The formation of stress granule formation in a cell can be compared to the same cell prior to treatment or can be compared to at least one second cell or a population of cells not receiving treatment or receiving a different treatment. In some embodiments, the cell is treated with the at least one neuroprotective molecule or the C-myc oligonucleotide for at least 2 hours (e.g., at least 6 hours, 12 hours, 16 hours, 20 hours, or 24 hours) before the formation of stress granules is determined in the cell.
An increase in stress granule formation in a cell (e.g., a motor neuron) can be indirectly observed in a subject having a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., stress-induced motor neuron death) by a decrease (e.g., a detectable decrease) in the rate of the development of at least one symptom of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death or a decrease in the rate of the worsening or exacerbation of at least one symptom (e.g., an increase in the intensity, duration, or frequency of at least one symptom over time) of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death in a subject.
In some embodiments, a C-myc oligonucleotide containing the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 174 is administered to the cell. The C-myc oligonucleotides that can be used in these methods can include at least one modified nucleotide (e.g., any of the modified oligonucleotides described herein). In addition, the C-myc oligonucleotides can contain at least one modification in the phosphate backbone (the phosphodiester linkage between two adjoining nucleotides) (e.g., any of linkages described herein). The C-myc oligonucleotides described herein can also include a 5′ and/or a 3′ blocking group (e.g., a 5′ and/or 3′ blocking group that decreases or inhibits nuclease degradation) (e.g., any of the 5′ and/or 3′ blocking groups described herein or known in the art). In some embodiments, the C-myc oligonucleotides have a total length of between 21 to 50 nucleotides (e.g., 21-30 nucleotides, 30-40 nucleotides, or 40-50 nucleotides).
In various embodiments of these methods, the cell can be a neuron (e.g., a motor neuron), a fibroblast, an epithelial cell, an endothelial cell, or a muscle cell. In any of the methods described herein, the cell is a human cell. In some embodiments of these methods, the cell is in vitro (in tissue culture). In some embodiments of these methods, the cell is in vivo (in a human). In some embodiments, the cell is ex vivo (e.g., a primary human neuron or a primary rat neuron).
The neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide can be administered to the cell by a laboratory worker (a research scientist), a health care professional (e.g., a physician, a physician's assistant, or a nurse), or a subject (e.g., self-administration). In instances where the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide are administered to a to a cell in vivo (in a subject), the dosing and administration of the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide can be performed as described below.
The data in the Examples show that the neuroprotective molecules and the C-myc oligonucleotides described herein inhibit protein translation of mRNA (capped and uncapped mRNAs) by displacing eIF4G/eIF4A from uncapped RNAs and by displacing eIF4F from the m7G cap of mRNAs. Accordingly, provided herein are methods of decreasing protein translation in a cell that include administering to a cell a neuroprotective molecule (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein) or an isolated C-myc oligonucleotide (e.g., any of the C-myc oligonucleotides described herein), where the neuroprotective molecule or the isolated C-myc oligonucleotide is administered in an amount sufficient to decrease (e.g., a significant or detectable decrease) protein translation in the cell.
In some embodiments, the decrease in protein translation is detected by the amount of protein translation (new proteins translated) over a specific period of time (e.g., at least 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, or 6 hours). In some embodiments, the decrease is protein translation is a decrease in the rate of protein translation in the cell (e.g., as measured by radioisotope labeling (35S) of newly translated proteins or by detection of the biological activity of a newly expressed protein). The decrease in protein translation in a cell can be compared to a control cell or population of cells not receiving the treatment or receiving a different treatment. Additional methods for detecting protein translation are described herein and are known in the art.
An decrease in protein translation in a cell (e.g., a motor neuron) can be indirectly observed in a subject having a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., stress-induced motor neuron death) by a decrease (e.g., a detectable decrease) in the rate of the development of at least one symptom of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death or a decrease in the rate of the worsening or exacerbation of at least one symptom (e.g., an increase in the intensity, duration, or frequency of at least one symptom over time) of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death in a subject.
In various embodiments of these methods, the cell can be a neuron (e.g., a motor neuron), a fibroblast, an epithelial cell, an endothelial cell, or a muscle cell. In any of the methods described herein, the cell is a human cell. In some embodiments of these methods, the cell is in vitro (in tissue culture). In some embodiments of these methods, the cell is in vivo (in a human). In some embodiments the cell is ex vivo (e.g., a primary human neuron or a primary rat neuron).
The neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide can be administered to the cell by a laboratory worker (a research scientist), a health care professional (e.g., a physician, a physician's assistant, or a nurse), or a subject (e.g., self-administration). In instances where the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide are administered to a cell in vivo (administered to a subject), the dosing and administration of the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide can be performed as described below.
Methods of Treating Neurological Disorders Associated with Neuron Death
Also provided herein are methods of treating neurological disorders associated with neuron death (apoptosis and/or necrosis, or stress-induced neuron death). These methods include administering a neuroprotective molecule (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules described herein) or an isolated C-myc oligonucleotide (e.g., any of the C-myc oligonucleotides described herein), where the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide are administered in an amount sufficient to treat the neurological disorder associated with neuron death in the subject.
Neurological disorders associated with neuron death are a group of diseases that are characterized by neuron death (e.g., motor neuron death or stress-induced motor neuron death) and/or have an etiology that involves neuron death (e.g., motor neuron death or stress-induced motor neuron death). Non-limiting examples of neurological disorders associated with neuron death include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, and stroke. Neuronal death in this group of disorders can be induced by a variety of stress stimuli, including, for example, oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation. The data in the Examples herein show that induction of stress granules (e.g., by administration of any of the neuroprotective molecules or C-myc oligonucleotides described herein) mediates an increase in resistance to stress-induced neuronal death. Thus, by virtue of their ability to induce an increase in stress granule formation in neurons (e.g., motor neurons) in a subject, administration of the neuroprotective molecules and the C-myc oligonucleotides described herein can treat a neurological disorder associated with neuron death in a subject. Some of the neuroprotective molecules and C-myc oligonucleotides described herein have the further advantage that they are taken up by neurons (e.g., motor neurons) without the addition of a transfection agent.
Non-limiting symptoms of neurological disorders associated with neuron death include: hyperflexia, weak muscles, twitching, speech problems, breathing problems, swallowing difficulties, loss of memory, confusion, disorientation, difficulty writing, depression, anxiety, social withdrawal, mood swings, aggressiveness, changes in sleeping habits, tremors, bradykinesia, rigid muscles, impaired balance, involuntary facial movements, numbness or weakness in limbs, partial or complete loss of vision, fatigue, dizziness, paralysis on one side of body or face, and headache. A neurological disorder associated with neuronal death can be diagnosed by a health care professional by detecting or observing one or more (e.g., two, three, or four) symptoms (any of the above listed symptoms) in a subject.
In some embodiments, the administering results in a decrease in the number of symptoms of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., as compared to the number of symptoms in a subject prior to treatment or to a subject having the same neurological disorder and not receiving treatment or receiving a different treatment). In some embodiments, the administering results in a decrease (e.g., a detectable or observable decrease) in the severity, frequency, or duration of one or more symptoms of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., those symptoms listed herein) (e.g., as compared to a subject having the same neurological disorder and not receiving treatment or receiving a different treatment).
In some embodiments, the administering results in a decrease (e.g., a detectable or observable decrease) in the rate of the development of one or more new symptoms of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death in a subject having a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., as compared to the rate of the development of one or more new symptoms of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death in a subject having the same neurological disorder and not receiving treatment or receiving a different treatment). In some embodiments, the administering results in a decrease (e.g., a detectable or observable decrease) in the rate of worsening or exacerbation of one or more symptoms of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., an increase in the severity, frequency, or duration of one or more symptoms of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death over time) (e.g., any of those symptoms described herein) (e.g., as compared to a subject having the same neurological disorder and not receiving treatment or receiving a different treatment).
In some embodiments, the administering results in an increase in stress granule formation in a neuron (e.g., a motor neuron) in a subject that has a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., as compared to a subject having the same neurological disorder and not receiving treatment or receiving a different treatment). In some embodiments, the administering results in a decrease or inhibition in protein translation in a cell (e.g., a motor neuron) in a subject that has a neurological disorder associated with neuron death (e.g., as compared to a subject having the same neurological disorder and not receiving treatment or receiving a different treatment). In some embodiments, the administering results in a decrease in neuron death or a decrease in the rate of neuron death (e.g., stress-induced motor neuron death) over a period of time (e.g., at least one month, at least one year, or at least five years) (e.g., as compared to a subject having the same neurological disorder and not receiving treatment or receiving a different treatment). A decrease in protein translation in a neuron (e.g., a motor neuron), an increase in stress granule in a neuron (e.g., a motor neuron), or a decrease in the amount or rate of neuron death over time can be indirectly observed by a physician by a decrease (e.g., a detectable or observable decrease) in the rate of the development of at least one new symptom of a neurological disorder associated with neuron death in a subject (e.g., a decrease in further development of at least one additional symptom of the disorder) or a decrease in the rate of exacerbation of at least one symptom (e.g., a decreased rate of increasing frequency, severity, and/or duration of at least one symptom of the neurological disorder associated with neuron death) (e.g., as compared to a subject having the same neurological disorder and not receiving treatment or receiving a different treatment).
Any of the neuroprotective molecules or C-myc oligonucleotides described herein can be used in these methods. In preferred embodiments, the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide is taken up by a neuron in the subject in the absence of a transfection agent. In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecule or the C-myc oligonucleotide contains a modified nucleotide (e.g., any of the modified bases and/or sugars described herein). In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecule or the C-myc oligonucleotide contains at least one modification in its phosphate (phosphodiester) backbone (e.g., any of the moieties described herein that can be used to link two adjoining nucleotides).
The neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide can be administered by a health care professional (e.g., a physician, a physician's assistant, a nurse, or a laboratory or clinic worker), the subject (i.e., self-administration), or a friend or family member of the subject. The administering can be performed in a clinical setting (e.g., at a clinic or a hospital), in an assisted living facility, or at a pharmacy.
The neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide can be administered to a subject that has been diagnosed as having a neurological disorder associated with neuron death. In some non-limiting embodiments, the subject is a man or a woman, an adult, or an adolescent. The subject can have experienced one or more symptoms of the neurological disorder associated with neuron death for at least one year, two years, three years, four years, or five years. The subject can also be diagnosed as having a later or severe form (an advanced stage) of the neurological disorder associated with neuron death.
In some embodiments of any of the methods described herein, the subject is administered at least one (e.g., at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, or 30) dose of a composition containing at least one (e.g., one, two, three, or four) of any of the neuroprotective molecules, C-myc oligonucleotides, or pharmaceutical compositions described herein. In any of the methods described herein, the neuroprotective molecule, C-myc oligonucleotide, or pharmaceutical composition (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules, C-myc oligonucleotides, or pharmaceutical compositions described herein) can be administered intravenously, intraarterially, subcutaneously, intraperitoneally, intracranially, ocularly, or intramuscularly to the subject. In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecule, C-myc oligonucleotide, or pharmaceutical composition is administered intracranially, ocularly, or to the spinal fluid.
In some embodiments, the subject is administered the neuroprotective molecule, C-myc oligonucleotide, or pharmaceutical composition (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules, C-myc oligonucleotides, or pharmaceutical compositions described herein) and at least one additional therapeutic agent. The at least one additional therapeutic agent can be selected from the group consisting of: mexiletine, phenytoin, baclofen, dantrolene, carbamazepine, corticosteroids, β-interferons, glatiramer, fingolimod, natalizumab, mitoxantrone, aspirin, tissue plasminogen activator, anti-cholinergics (e.g., benzotropine and trihexyphenidyl), glutamate (NMDA) blocking drugs (e.g., amantadine), riluzole, cholesterase inhibitors (e.g., donepezil, galactamine, and rivastigmine), memantine, levodopa, carbidopa, dopamine agonists (e.g., pramipexole, ropinicole, and apomorphine), monoamine oxidase B inhibitors (e.g., selegiline and vasagiline), catechol O-methyl transferase inhibitors (e.g., tolcapone and entracapone), tetrabenazine, and anti-psychotic drugs (e.g., haloperidol and clozapine). In some embodiments, at least one additional therapeutic agent and at least one neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules or C-myc oligonucleotides described herein) are administered in the same composition (e.g., the same pharmaceutical composition). In some embodiments, the at least one additional therapeutic agent and the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide are administered to the subject using different routes of administration (e.g., at least one additional therapeutic agent delivered by oral administration and the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide delivered by intravenous administration).
In any of the methods described herein, the neuroprotective molecule, C-myc oligonucleotide, or pharmaceutical composition (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules, C-myc oligonucleotides, or pharmaceutical compositions described herein) and, optionally, at least one additional therapeutic agent can be administered to the subject at least once a week (e.g., once a week, twice a week, three times a week, four times a week, once a day, twice a day, or three times a day). In some embodiments, at least two different neuroprotective molecules and/or C-myc oligonucleotides are administered in the same composition (e.g., a liquid composition). In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide and at least one additional therapeutic agent are administered in the same composition (e.g., a liquid composition). In some embodiments, the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide and the at least one additional therapeutic agent are administered in two different compositions (e.g., a liquid composition containing the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide and a solid oral composition containing at least one additional therapeutic agent). In some embodiments, the at least one additional therapeutic agent is administered as a pill, tablet, or capsule. In some embodiments, the at least one additional therapeutic agent is administered in a sustained-release oral formulation.
In some embodiments, the one or more additional therapeutic agents can be administered to the subject prior to administering the neuroprotective molecule, C-myc oligonucleotide, or pharmaceutical composition (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules, C-myc oligonucleotides, or pharmaceutical compositions described herein). In some embodiments, the one or more additional therapeutic agents can be administered to the subject after administering the neuroprotective molecule, C-myc oligonucleotide, or pharmaceutical composition (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules, C-myc oligonucleotides, or pharmaceutical compositions described herein). In some embodiments, the one or more additional therapeutic agents and the neuroprotective molecule, C-myc oligonucleotide, or pharmaceutical composition (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules, C-myc oligonucleotides, or pharmaceutical compositions described herein) are administered to the subject such that there is an overlap in the bioactive period of the one or more additional therapeutic agents and the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules or C-myc oligonucleotides described herein) in the subject.
In some embodiments, the subject can be administered the neuroprotective molecule, C-myc oligonucleotide, or pharmaceutical composition (e.g., any of the neuroprotective molecules, C-myc oligonucleotides, or pharmaceutical compositions described herein) over an extended period of time (e.g., over a period of at least 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 7 months, 8 months, 9 months, 10 months, 11 months, 12 months, 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, 4 years, 5 years, or 10 years). A skilled medical professional may determine the length of the treatment period using any of the methods described herein for diagnosing or following the effectiveness of treatment (e.g., using the methods above and those known in the art). As described herein, a skilled medical professional can also change the identity and number (e.g., increase or decrease) of neuroprotective molecules or C-myc oligonucleotides (and/or one or more additional therapeutic agents) administered to the subject and can also adjust (e.g., increase or decrease) the dosage or frequency of administration of the neuroprotective molecule or C-myc oligonucleotide (and/or one or more additional therapeutic agents) to the subject based on an assessment of the effectiveness of the treatment (e.g., using any of the methods described herein and known in the art). A skilled medical professional can further determine when to discontinue treatment (e.g., for example, when the subject's symptoms are significantly decreased).
Also provided herein are methods of identifying a candidate translation inhibitory nucleic acid. These methods include (a) attaching to the 5′ end of a nucleic acid sequence of between 20-50 nucleotides (e.g., 20-30 nucleotides, 30-40 nucleotides, or 40-50 nucleotides) at least four (e.g., at least five, six, or seven) guanosine-containing nucleotides, and (b) determining the level of protein translation in the presence of the molecule produced in (a). A decrease (e.g., a significant or detectable decrease) in the level of protein translation in the presence of the molecule produced in (a) relative to the level of protein synthesis in the absence of the molecule produced in (a) identifies the molecule produced in (a) as a candidate translation inhibitory nucleic acid.
In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence of between 20-50 nucleotides contains at least 50% (e.g., at least 55%, 60%, 65%, or 70%) guanosine-containing/cytosine-containing nucleotides. In some embodiments, the sequence of between 20-50 nucleotides is at least 80% identical to a contiguous sequence between nucleotide 1 and nucleotide 50 of a mature human tRNA sequence (e.g., any of the tRNA sequences described or referenced herein, or any mature human tRNA sequence known in the art). The nucleic acid sequence of between 20-50 nucleotides can contain at least one modified nucleotide (e.g., can contain any of the base modifications or sugar modifications described herein). The nucleic acid sequence of between 20-50 nucleotides can also contain at least one modification in the phosphate (phosphodiester) backbone (e.g., any of the linking moieties between two adjoining nucleotides described herein). The molecule produced in (a) can also contain a 5′ and/or 3′ protective group (e.g., a protective group that decreases nuclease degradation of the molecule produced in (a)) (e.g., any of the 5′ or 3′ protective groups described herein or known in the art).
In some embodiments of these methods, the level of protein translation is determined in a cell (e.g., a fibroblast, a neuron (e.g., a motor neuron), an endothelial cell, an epithelial cell, or a muscle cell) (e.g., a cell in vitro). In some embodiments, the level of protein translation is determined in a cell lysate (e.g., a reticulocyte lysate). In some embodiments of all of the above methods, the cell is a human cell.
The level of protein synthesis in these methods can be the total amount of protein translation that occurs over a specific period of time (e.g., at least 2 hours, 6 hours, 12 hours, 16 hours, 20 hours, or 24 hours) or the rate of protein synthesis. Methods for measuring or detecting protein translation are described herein. Additional methods for measuring or detecting protein synthesis are known in the art.
Candidate translation inhibitory nucleic acids identified in these methods can be further modified by the incorporation of modified nucleotides (e.g., modified bases and/or sugars), by introducing a modification in the phosphate (phosphodiester) backbone (e.g., introduction of one of the linking moieties described herein), and/or by adding a 5′ and/or 3′ blocking group to the molecule produced in (a), and further tested to determine the molecule's ability to decrease protein translation.
The invention is further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims.
Experiments were performed in order to determine whether natural 5′- and 3′-tRNA fragments (tiRNAs) purified from angiogenin-treated U2OS cells would inhibit translation of uncapped luciferase transcripts in rabbit reticulocyte lysate (RRL). The following methods were used to perform these experiments.
Tissue Culture and Cell Treatment
U2OS cells were maintained at 37° C. in a CO2 incubator in Minimal Essential Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) (Sigma) and 1% of penicillin/streptomycin (Sigma). The cells were treated with angiogenin (0.5 μg/mL) as described in Kedersha et al., Methods Enzymol. 448:521-552, 2008.
Isolation of tiRNAs
Extraction of tiRNAs from angiogenin-treated U2OS cells was done as previously described (Yamasaki et al., J Cell Biol. 185:35-42, 2009).
In Vitro Translation of mRNA Reporters in Rabbit Reticulocyte Lysates (RRLs)
The Flexi Rabbit Reticulocyte Lysate (RRL) System (Promega) was used for the in vitro analysis of mRNA translation according to the manufacture's recommendations with some modifications. In all cases, translation reactions (10 μl final volume) contained 70% of reticulocyte lysates or mixtures of RRL supplemented with 20% of microccocal nuclease-treated U2OS extract (RRL+20% U2OS lysate) and 8 units of RNasin Ribonuclease Inhibitor (Promega).
Fifty ng of uncapped Firefly RNA (Promega) were used per translation reaction. One hundred picomoles of control RNAs or tiRNAs were added to translation reactions, mixed, and incubated for 30 minutes at 30° C. The reactions were stopped at 4° C. and the activity of Firefly luciferase was measured using ⅕ of the translation reactions with the Luciferase Assay System (Promega) according to the manufacture's recommendations (2 second measurement delay followed by 10 second measurement read).
Northern Blot Analysis
RNA was separated on either a 10% or 15% TBE-UREA Gel (Invitrogen) and transferred to Supercharge nylon transfer membranes (Nytran SPC; 0.45 μm pore size; Whatman). The RNA on the membranes was UV cross-linked using a FB-UVXL-1000 cross-linker (Fisher Scientific). The membranes were then pre-hybridized in hybridization solution (5×SSC, 20 mM Na2HPO4 pH 7.4, 7% SDS, 1×Denhardt's) at 47° C. for 30 minutes and then hybridized with the 32P 5′-end labeled oligonucleotide probe (ME8: 5′CTTTATGTTTTTGGCGTCTTCCATCTCGAGGC3′; SEQ ID NO: 175) overnight at 47° C. The membranes were washed twice for 15 minutes at 47° C. with 3×SSC/5% SDS and once with 1×SSC/1% SDS for 15 minutes at room temperature. After washing, RNA signals were detected by autoradiography on X-Omat film (Kodak) after overnight exposure at −80° C.
Results
Uncapped Firefly luciferase mRNA (Promega) was translated in RRL in the presence of a control RNA mix (Ctrl 1-2-3; derived from Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) or randon sequences), natural 5′-tiRNAs (Nat 5′ end), or natural 3′-tiRNAs (Nat 3′end) using the methods described above. Luciferase expression was compared to the level of expression in the absence of RNA (No RNA=100%). The data from these experiments show that natural 5′-tiRNAs (but not 3′-tiRNAs) gel-purified from angiogenin-treated U2OS cells significantly inhibit translation of uncapped luciferase transcripts in RRLs (
Since natural tiRNA preparations are contaminated with ribosomal and mRNA fragments, experiments were performed to compare the activity of synthetic 5′-end phosphorylated 5′-tiRNAs (5′-tiRNAs) and unphosphorylated 3′-tiRNAs (3′-tiRNAs) (Emara et al., J Biol. Chem. 285:10959-10968, 2010) in the above-described in vitro RRL translation assay. The synthetic tiRNAs used in this study were synthesized by Integrated DNA Technology and were at least 95% homogenous. The synthetic sequences used in these experiments were:
The levels of luciferase mRNA were also determined in these experiments using Northern blot using the methods described above.
The data from these experiments show that although several tiRNAs significantly inhibit translation, 5′-tiRNAAla and 5′-tiRNACys are particularly potent translational inhibitors (
Additional experiments were performed to determine whether 5′-tiRNAAla and 3′-tiRNAAla inhibit the translation of capped luciferase transcripts. These experiments were performed using the RRL translation assay described above with 10 nm of capped Firefly mRNA. To prepare capped Firefly luciferase mRNA, 2 μg of commercial uncapped Firefly luciferase mRNA (Promega) was capped by Vaccinia Virus Capping enzyme using ScriptCap m7G Capping System (EPICENTRE Biotechnologies) according to the manufacture's recommendations. Capped mRNA was purified by standard ethanol precipitation and quantified by spectrophotometry (Beckman DU 640 instrument).
The data from these experiments show that 5′-tiRNAAla (but not 3′-tiRNAAla) also significantly inhibits the translation of capped luciferase transcripts (
Additional experiments were performed in order to determine the role of eIF4G in tiRNA-mediated translational repression. In these experiments, the translation of capped or uncapped bicistronic reporter transcripts encoding an upstream Firefly luciferase and a downstream EMCV IRES-driven Renilla luciferase in the absence or presence of tiRNAs was quantitated. These experiments were performed using the methods generally described above with the modifications described below.
RNA transcripts for use in the RRL assay were prepared by first linearizing the bicistronic reporter plasmid (pF/R) (Bochkov et al., BioTechniques 41:283-284, 286, 288, 2006) by digestion with HpaI (New England Biolabs), separating the cut plasmids on 1% agarose gel, and then purifying the plasmids from the gel with QIAquick Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen). Riboprobe T7 in vitro transcription System (Promega) was used to synthesize pF/R RNA using T7 RNA Polymerase according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Subsequently, in vitro transcribed RNA was purified using Trizol (Invitrogen) extraction followed by isopropanol precipitation. Purified RNA was analyzed for purity on a formaldehyde gel and quantified by spectrophotometry (Beckman DU 640). One hundred nanograms of pF/R bicistronic mRNA were used per translation reaction and the activities of Firefly and Renilla luciferase were measured using ⅕ of translation reactions with the Dual-Luciferase Reporter Assay System (Promega).
The data from these experiments show that 5′- (but not 3′-tiRNAAla) significantly reduces the Firefly/Renilla luciferase ratio (
The recruitment of eIF4G to the EMCV IRES is critically dependent upon binding to the J-K domain which includes a UA6 bifurcation loop located upstream from the AUG translation start site. A variant bifurcation loop (UA7) reduces the binding of eIF4G to reduce translation efficiency and infectivity of encephalomyocarditis virus. Additional experiments were performed to compare the ability of control RNAs and tiRNAs to inhibit the translation of luciferase from monocistronic luciferase constructs expressing the wild type (UA6) or mutant (UA7) EMCV IRES. The experiments were performed using the methods generally described above with the modifications described below.
The pCDNA3-EMCV-R-luc (EMCV-UA6) plasmid used in these experiments was prepared by amplifying a fragment of the pF/R plasmid encoding EMCV IRES by PCR and subcloning the fragment into pCDNA3 vector using BamHI and XhoI sites. The ORF of Renilla luciferase was amplified by PCR and inserted into pCDNA3-EMCV construct using XhoI and XbaI sites.
RNA transcripts for use in the RRL assay were prepared by first linearizing the plasmids pCDNA3-EMCV-R-luc (EMCV-UA6), pRL-5boxB, and pEMCV-RL-5boxB by digestion with XbaI (New England Biolabs), and separating and purifying the linearized plasmids as described above. Riboprobe T7 in vitro transcription System (Promega) was used to synthesize corresponding RNA and the RNA was purified as described above. Luciferase expression was also measured as described above.
The resulting data show that 5′-tiRNAAla does not inhibit translation from the wild type (UA6) IRES (
The resulting data show that eIF4E does not competitively inhibit tiRNAAla-induced translational repression (
Additional experiments were performed to determine whether 5′-tiRNAs displace eIF4G from RNA. In these experiments, biotin-tagged capped or uncapped luciferase transcripts were added to heterologous (80% RRL+20% U2OS) lysates containing control RNA or tiRNAs in the above described in vitro translation assays. After streptavidin pull down, the reporter RNA-bound proteins were quantitated by immunoblotting. These experiments were performed as described above with the additions or modifications described below.
Poly-A biotinylated mRNAs used for streptavidin pull-down assays were prepared by polyadenylating capped or uncapped pRL-5boxB RNAs using Poly(A) Polymerase Tailing Kit (EPICENTRE Biotechnologies) according to the manufacturer's recommendation, but in the presence of 10 nM biotin-ATP (PerkinElmer).
Streptavidin agarose beads (Invitrogen) (40 μL per sample) were washed twice with RNAse-free Biotin Binding Buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.2, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 0.1% NP-40). Five hundred pmoles of biotinylated RNAs were added to streptavidin beads and incubated for 1 hour at room temperature with rotation in 0.75 mL of Biotin Binding Buffer. After incubation, immobilized biotinylated RNA-streptavidin complexes were washed twice with RNAse-free Wash Buffer II (15 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.2, 750 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 0.1% NP-40) and once with ice-cold RNAse-free Wash Buffer I (15 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.2, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 0.1% NP-40) at room temperature to remove unbound RNA. Pre-cleared U2OS lysates (200 μl of lysate per reaction, corresponding to 20% of lysate (in Lysis Buffer: 50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.2, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 0.5% NP-40, with protease inhibitor cocktail “Complete,” Roche) prepared from one 15-cm dish of 80% confluent U2OS cells) were added to the biotinylated RNA-streptavidin bead complexes, incubated for 2 hours at 4° C. with rotation, and washed 3 times with Wash Buffers (15 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.2, 1 mM EDTA, 0.1% NP-40) containing different NaCl concentrations (0.1 M, 0.3 M or 0.5 M). Proteins were eluted using 60 μl of 1×SDS PAGE Loading Buffer.
For pull-down of biotinylated polyA mRNAs, 200 ng of capped or uncapped pRL-5boxB mRNAs were used for in vitro translation in rabbit reticulocyte lysate supplemented with 20% U2OS extract under the conditions described above. This heterologous in vitro translation system (RRL with cell extract) is capable of translating mRNAs with similar to Flexi Rabbit Reticulocyte Lysate System efficiency, but allows for the detection of eIF4G (human) by Western Blotting (the antibodies used do not detect eIF4G of rabbit origin). One hundred picomoles of control RNAs or tiRNAs were added to translation reactions. After completion of translation, streptavidin agarose beads (Invitrogen) (40 μL per sample) were added to reactions and incubated at 4° C. for 30 minutes. Streptavidin beads were precipitated by centrifugation (1000 rpm, 5 minutes), the supernatants were removed, and the beads were washed once with ice-cold Wash buffer (15 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.2, 150 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 0.1% NP-40). The resulting mRNA-protein complexes were eluted from the beads using 60 μl of 1×SDS PAGE Loading Buffer.
For Western blotting, proteins were separated on a 4-20% gradient SDS-PAGE (Invitrogen) and transferred to nitrocellulose filter membranes (0.45 m pore size; Invitrogen). The membranes were blocked with 5% normal horse serum (NHS) in 1×TBS at room temperature for 1 hour and incubated with protein-specific antibodies in TBS containing 5% NHS overnight at 4° C. The membranes were washed three times with 1×TBS containing 0.1% Tween-20 and incubated with secondary antibodies conjugated with horseradish peroxidase (GE Healthcare). After washing, the specific proteins were detected using the Super Signal chemiluminescent detection system (Pierce) and autoradiography on X-Omat film (Kodak).
The data from these experiments show that uncapped RNA is bound to eIF4G, but not eIF4E (
Additional experiments were performed in order to determine whether 5′-tiRNAs affect eIF4F:cap interactions. For these experiments, eIF4E complexes were assembled (e.g., eIF4F (eIF4E:eIF4G) and eIF4E:4E-BP1) on m7GTP-Sepharose from U2OS cell lysates. The Sepharose-bound complexes were incubated with 3′-end biotinylated control or tiRNAs before analyzing retained components of the eIF4E-containing complexes using Western blotting. The methods used to perform these experiments are described in detail below.
7-Methyl GTP Sepharose Chromatography
A 7-methyl-GTP-Sepharose 4B (m7GTP-Sepharose, GE Healthcare) suspension was washed twice with ice-cold RNAse-free Buffer A (15 mM Tris HCl, pH 7.0, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA) to remove sodium azide. U2OS cells were grown until 70-80% confluence in 15-cm dishes under standard conditions, and then collected by scraping with Lysis Buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.2, 100 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 0.5% NP-40) supplemented with protease inhibitors (Protease Inhibitor Cocktail “Complete,” Roche) into Eppendorf tubes followed by tumbling at 4° C. for 15 minutes. Cell debris and nuclei were removed by centrifugation (20 minutes, 13200 rpm, 4° C.), the cytoplasmic fraction (supernatant) was applied to pre-washed m7GTP-Sepharose, and incubated for 1 hour at 4° C. Typically, 10-20 μl of m7GTP-Sepharose suspension was used per sample of synthetic RNA (50 or 100 pmoles). After incubation, the m7GTP-Sepharose was washed three times with Lysis Buffer and m7GTP-bound protein complexes were divided into equal parts. Synthetic RNAs (50 or 100 pmoles, final concentrations 20-40 nM) were added to the complexes and incubated for 1 hour at 4° C. Unbound proteins were removed by washing once with Lysis Buffer and the proteins bound to m7GTP-Sepharose were eluted with 60 μl of 1×SDS PAGE Loading Buffer. Eluted proteins were analyzed by Western Blotting using protein-specific antibodies.
Goat polyclonal anti-eIF3b, goat polyclonal anti-eIF4A, rabbit polyclonal anti-eIF4G, mouse monoclonal anti-eIF4E were purchased from Santa Cruz Biotechnology. Rabbit polyclonal anti-eIF4EBP1 was purchased from Cell Signaling. Anti-mouse, anti-goat, and anti-rabbit secondary antibodies conjugated with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) were purchased from GE Healthcare.
The resulting data show that although control RNAs did not displace initiation factors from m7GTP-Sepharose, 5′-tiRNAAla (but not 3′-tiRNAAla) completely displaces eIF4G and eIF4A, and partially displaces (˜50%) eIF4E from the beads (
tRNAAla and tRNACys are the only human tRNAs with terminal oligo-guanine (TOG) motifs (4-5 guanine residues) at their 5′ ends (up-to-date alignments for H. sapiens tRNAs can be found at the Lowe Lab website at the address: lowelab.ucsc.edu/GtRNAdb/Hsapi19/Hsapi19-align.html) (see, secondary structure of tRNAAla,
Additional experiments were performed to determine whether these 5′-TOG motifs are required for translation repression. In these experiments, the ability of truncation and substitution mutants to inhibit translation was determined using the RRL translation assays described herein using Firefly luciferase mRNAs. The specific tiRNAs and control oligonucleotides used in these experiments were synthesized and purified by Integrated DNA Technology (at least 95% homogenous), and are listed below.
To determine whether the 5′-TOG structural feature is required for translational repression the ability of truncation and substitution mutants of tiRNAs (
Additional experiments were performed to determine whether the ability of the 5′-tiRNAAla mutants to inhibit mRNA translation closely correlates with their ability to displace eIF4F from m7GTP-Sepharose, or their ability to induce stress granule assembly (when transfected into U2OS cells). The m7GTP-Sepharose experiments were performed as described above using the 5′-tiRNAAla mutants described herein. The transfection of U2OS cells and the methods for determining stress granule assembly are described below.
Cell Transfections
Cells were transfected with the RNA oligonucleotides using Lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen). Before transfection, RNA-complexes were pre-incubated in serum-free medium (Opti-MEM medium, Invitrogen) for 20 minutes at room temperature. U2OS cells (1×105/well) were plated in 24-well plates for 24 hours, and then transfected with 750 nM synthetic tiRNAs using 2.5 μl Lipofectamine 2000.
Immunofluorescence Microscopy and Quantification of Stress Granules
Cells (1×105) were seeded onto coverslips (Fisher Scientific) and were transfected with synthetic tiRNAs using Lipofectamine 2000 24-hours later (Invitrogen). After 7 hours, the cells were fixed in 4% para-formaldehyde for 15 minutes and permeabilized using 100% chilled methanol for 10 minutes. The cells were rinsed several times with PBS and incubated overnight with blocking buffer (5% normal horse serum in PBS containing 0.02% sodium azide) at 4° C. An appropriate primary antibody diluted in blocking buffer (1:200 for anti-eIF3b, anti-eIF4G, and anti-G3BP antibody) was then added to the cells and incubated for 1 hour at room temperature or overnight at 4° C. (Kedersha et al., Methods Enzymol. 448:521-522, 2007). The cells were washed three times with PBS and incubated with the appropriate secondary antibodies (Jackson Immunoresearch, ML grade) diluted 1:200 in blocking buffer containing 0.5 μg/ml Hoechst 33258 dye (Molecular probes) for 1 hour at room temperature. After washing with PBS, the cover slips were mounted in polyvinyl mounting medium, and the cells were viewed and photographed with an Eclipse E800 (Nikon) microscope equipped with a digital camera (CCD-SPOT RT; Diagnostic Instrument) using 60× oil immersion objective lens. The images were merged and analyzed using Adobe Photoshop (v. 10).
Quantification of Stress Granules
U2OS cells (1×105) were seeded onto coverslips (Fisher Scientific) and were transfected 24 hours later with the indicated RNA oligonucleotides (final concentration of 750 nM) using Lipofectamine 2000. After 7 hours, the cells were subjected to immunofluorescence microscopy as described above. The coverslips were coded and all quantifications were done blindly and repeated at least twice. The percentage of cells with stress granules was quantified by counting 200-350 cells/experiment.
The resulting data show that the ability of 5′-tiRNAAla and its mutants to inhibit mRNA translation closely correlates with their ability to displace eIF4F from m7GTP-Sepharose (
Additional immunoblotting experiments were performed to determine whether transfection with these oligonucleotides induced the phosphorylation of eIF2α, a classical trigger of stress granule assembly. These data show that transfection of wild type or mutant 5′-tiRNAAla does not induce phosphorylation of eIF2α (
Additional experiments were performed to confirm the importance of the 5′-TOG motif for tiRNA activity. In these experiments, the first 5 nucleotides of non-TOG-containing 5′-tiRNAMet was substituted with 5 guanine residues (
Pull-down of RNA-protein complexes using biotinylated control RNA or 5′-tiRNAAla immobilized on streptavidin beads was used to purify proteins that interact with these RNAs. RNA-bound proteins were identified by mass spectrometry. Independent pull-down experiments were performed to confirm the ability of several of these proteins to interact with tiRNAAla These experiments were performed using biotinylated control or 5′-tiRNAAla using streptavidin beads as described above. The individual 3′-biotinylated oligonucleotides used in these assays were synthesized by and purchased from Integrated DNA Technology (listed below). Silver staining and mass spectrometry identification of tiRNA-binding proteins was performed as described below.
Biotinylated Oligonucleotides
Silver Staining of SDS PAGE Gels
To detect proteins recovered from affinity purification with biotinylated RNAs, eluted protein samples were run on gradient 4-20% SDS PAGE gels (Invitrogen) and fixed with Protein Fixation Buffer (30% ethanol: 10% acetic acid) for 30 minutes. SilverSNAP Stain Kit II (Pierce) was used according to the manufacture's recommendation to detect proteins.
Mass Spectrometry Identification of tiRNA-Binding Proteins
For mass spectrometry, protein solutions from affinity purification using 3′-end biotinylated RNAs were precipitated with trichloroacetic acid (TCA). Briefly, eluted protein samples were adjusted to 20% final volume of TCA using 100% TCA (in water) solution. The resulting mixture was placed on ice for 20 minutes followed by centrifugation (20 minutes, 13200 rpm, 4° C.). Protein pellet was washed once with 1 ml of cold (−20° C.) acetone (HPLC grade, Sigma), followed by centrifugation (20 minutes, 13200 rpm, 4° C.). The supernatant was carefully removed and the pellet was air-dried for 10 minutes at room temperature. The identification of tiRNA-binding proteins was done by Taplin Mass Spectrometry Facility according to standard protocols (Harvard Medical School).
The resulting data confirmed that several proteins involved in the regulation of RNA metabolism, including TDP-43 (TARDBP), Vigilin (HDLBP), YB-1 (YBX1), eIF4E, FXR1, eIF4G, CAPRINi (CAPRIN), Argonaute-2 (EIF2C2), and PABP1 (PABPC1) bind to 5′-tiRNAAla more strongly than control RNA (
Additional experiments were performed to determine whether the identified 5′-tiRNAAla binding proteins are required for translational repression. In these experiments, AGO2, PABP1, YB-1, Vigilin, and FXR1 were knocked down using siRNA prior to quantifying tiRNA-induced stress granule assembly in U2OS cells (assays performed as described above). These data show that, of the tested binding proteins, YB-1 was the only 5′-tiRNAAla binding protein required for the assembly of stress granules (
Experiments were performed to test the ability of synthetic DNA equivalents of 5′-tiRNAAla and anti-proliferative G-rich oligodeoxynucleotides (shown in
The resulting data show that 5′-tiDNAAla, AS1411, and c-myc oligodeoxynucleotides are potent inhibitors of translation in the RRL assay (none of these compounds alters the amount of luciferase RNA as assessed by Northern blotting analysis performed as described above) (
The data also show that the ability of the 5′-tiRNAs to inhibit translation correlates with their ability to trigger stress granule assembly in cells (following cellular transfection with these molecules) (
Additional experiments were performed in order to determine whether the 5′ G-rich oligodeoxynucleotides would be taken up by motor neurons in the absence of transfection agents. In these experiments NSC34 cells were treated with biotin-labeled C-myc, biotin-labeled AS1411, or biotin-labeled C-rich control oligodeoxynucleotides and cellular uptake was detected using Cy3-streptavidin. The resulting data show that AS1411 and c-myc, but not control oligodeoxynucleotides were found in cytoplasmic puncta within NSC34 cells: a result that is consistent with endosomal uptake (
Additional experiments were performed to test the effect of the G-rich oligodeoxynucleotides on motor neurons. A first set of dose response experiments were performed in order to determine whether the tested G-rich oligodeoxynucleotides were toxic to motor neurons in vitro. These data show that the AS1411 and oligo-GT oligodeoxynucleotides markedly increased NSC34 cell death at the end of a 72-hour incubation (
A second set of experiments was performed to determine whether the tested G-rich oligodeoxynucleotides are neuroprotective. In these experiments NSC34 cells were cultured in the presence of the individual oligodeoxynucleotides, then subjected to nutrient (serum starvation) or mitochondrial (rotenone) stress for 24 hours. NSC34 cells treated with either 5′-tiDNAAla or c-myc oligodeoxynucleotides, but not AS1411 or oligo-GT oligodeoxynucleotides were significantly protected from the adverse effects of stress (cell death;
It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims.
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna95-AlaAGC (58249908-58249836) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna25-AlaAGC (26859897-26859969) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna87-AlaAGC (148284076-148284006) Ala (AGC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna94-AlaAGC (58250620-58250548) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna160-AlaAGC (26881822-26881750) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna23-AlaAGC (26836235-26836307) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna90-AlaAGC (58295475-58295403) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna89-AlaAGC (58304654-58304582) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna9-AlaAGC (88515195-88515267) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna18-AlaAGC (26781569-26781641) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna22-AlaAGC (26813585-26813657) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna93-AlaAGC (58272659-58272587) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna159-AlaAGC (26904057-26903985) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna19-AlaAGC (26790694-26790766) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna91-AlaAGC (58290710-58290638) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna166-AlaAGC (26680143-26680071) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna20-AlaAGC (26795464-26795536) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna161-AlaAGC (26879341-26879269) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna24-AlaAGC (26838716-26838788) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna3-AlaAGC (27127586-27127658) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna6-AlaAGC (67188978-67189050) Ala (AGC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna68-AlaAGC (28795460-28795531) Ala (AGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna105-AlaAGC (28887899-28887828) Ala (AGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna67-AlaAGC (28786345-28786416) Ala (AGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna120-AlaAGC (28734064-28733993) Ala (AGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna65-AlaAGC (28682912-28682983) Ala (AGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna101-AlaAGC (28939512-28939441) Ala (AGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna102-AlaAGC (28914271-28914200) Ala (AGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna108-AlaAGC (28871791-28871720) Ala (AGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna117-AlaCGC (28771759-28771688) Ala (CGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna70-AlaCGC (28805071-28805142) Ala (CGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna13-AlaCGC (156965527-156965598) Ala (CGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna119-AlaCGC (28749663-28749592) Ala (CGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna10-AlaCGC (26661710-26661781) Ala (CGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna18-AlaTGC (50190526-50190455) Ala (TGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna107-AlaTGC (28878626-28878556) Ala (TGC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna113-AlaTGC (28834191-28834120) Ala (TGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna104-AlaTGC (28893062-28892991) Ala (TGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna8-AlaTGC (123990465-123990536) Ala (TGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna13-AlaTGC (123972325-123972254) Ala (TGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna8-AlaTGC (180566474-180566545) Ala (TGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna66-AlaTGC (28719201-28719272) Ala (TGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna110-AlaTGC (28865597-28865526) Ala (TGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr3.trna11-ArgACG (45705567-45705495) Arg (ACG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna138-ArgACG (27746395-27746323) Arg (ACG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna156-ArgACG (27289674-27289602) Arg (ACG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna36-ArgACG (27290931-27291003) Arg (ACG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna7-ArgACG (22468750-22468822) Arg (ACG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna6-ArgACG (26436347-26436419) Arg (ACG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna8-ArgACG (26645705-26645777) Arg (ACG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna23-ArgCCG (63446547-63446475) Arg (CCG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17 random.trna1-ArgCCG (1739927-1739999) Arg (CCG) 73
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna1-ArgCCG (3140676-3140748) Arg (CCG) 73 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna114-ArgCCG (28818780-28818708) Arg (CCG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna73-ArgCCG (28957144-28957216) Arg (CCG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna12-ArgCCT (3183919-3183991) Arg (CCT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna3-ArgCCT (138675986-138676058) Arg (CCT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna2-ArgCCT (3142902-3142974) Arg (CCT) 73 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna21-ArgCCT (70542193-70542121) Arg (CCT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna18-ArgCCT (70541596-70541668) Arg (CCT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr9.trna2-ArgTCG (112000624-112000696) Arg (TCG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna124-ArgTCG (28618942-28618870) Arg (TCG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna3-ArgTCG (26407884-26407956) Arg (TCG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna19-ArgTCG (70542803-70542875) Arg (TCG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna4-ArgTCG (26431025-26431097) Arg (TCG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr15.trna4-ArgTCG (87679308-87679380) Arg (TCG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna86-ArgTCT (157378098-157378025) Arg (TCT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr9.trna4-ArgTCT (130142266-130142176) Arg (TCT) 91 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna52-ArgTCT (27637942-27638028) Arg (TCT) 87 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna3-ArgTCT (59075343-59075428) Arg (TCT) 86 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna4-ArgTCT (7964968-7965055) Arg (TCT) 88 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna9-ArgTCT (94085717-94085801) Arg (TCT) 85 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna20-AsnATT (146185653-146185726) Asn (ATT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna13-AsnGTT (144097086-144097161) Asn (GTT) 76 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna93-AsnGTT (147936754-147936681) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna134-AsnGTT (16731553-16731480) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna50-AsnGTT (159858089-159858162) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna10-AsnGTT (142481551-142481624) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna122-AsnGTT (143200273-143200200) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna123-AsnGTT (143020044-143019971) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna24-AsnGTT (146344161-146344234) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna30-AsnGTT (147875233-147875306) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna101-AsnGTT (147551200-147551127) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna12-AsnGTT (143193197-143193270) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna6-AsnGTT (17074545-17074618) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna97-AsnGTT (147592969-147592896) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna11-AsnGTT (143012968-143013041) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna95-AsnGTT (147882314-147882241) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1_random.trna2-AsnGTT (906435-906508) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna113-AsnGTT (145987464-145987391) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna115-AsnGTT (144690464-144690391) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna89-AsnGTT (147978495-147978422) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna25-AsnGTT (146467429-146467502) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna103-AsnGTT (147497267-147497194) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna135-AsnGTT (16719740-16719667) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna7-AsnGTT (17088759-17088832) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna107-AsnGTT (147027053-147026980) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna108-AsnGTT (146865011-146864938) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna26-AsnGTT (146614739-146614812) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna83-AsnGTT (159664564-159664491) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr10.trna4-AsnGTT (22558517-22558444) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr13.trna7-AsnGTT (30146174-30146101) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna31-AsnGTT (34161633-34161560) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna1-AsnGTT (1334562-1334635) Asn (GTT) 74 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna47-AsnGTT (159776655-159776728) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna48-AspGTC (159841212-159841283) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna7-AspGTC (121426877-121426947) Asp (GTC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna46-AspGTC (159768539-159768610) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr3.trna3-AspGTC (185848859-185848789) Asp (GTC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna22-AspGTC (141754243-141754172) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr9.trna6-AspGTC (76707881-76707810) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna144-AspGTC (27659286-27659215) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna69-AspGTC (159706900-159706829) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna72-AspGTC (159699519-159699448) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna75-AspGTC (159692109-159692038) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna78-AspGTC (159684728-159684657) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna81-AspGTC (159677310-159677239) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna10-AspGTC (123990217-123990146) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna12-AspGTC (123977915-123977844) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna4-AspGTC (94953930-94954001) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna38-AspGTC (8066352-8066281) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna45-AspGTC (27555432-27555503) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna48-AspGTC (27579502-27579573) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna5-AspGTC (97421412-97421483) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna30-CysGCA (34243572-34243501) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna19-CysGCA (148923309-148923238) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna8-CysGCA (148884735-148884806) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna14-CysGCA (148992848-148992919) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna11-CysGCA (148925979-148926050) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna18-CysGCA (148941160-148941089) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna23-CysGCA (148703854-148703783) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna16-CysGCA (149019276-149019205) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna7-CysGCA (148874564-148874635) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna10-CysGCA (148912749-148912820) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna29-CysGCA (34271534-34271463) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna25-CysGCA (148683770-148683699) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna17-CysGCA (148975050-148974979) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna21-CysGCA (148743233-148743162) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna22-CysGCA (148705605-148705534) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr3.trna6-CysGCA (133433403-133433332) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna13-CysGCA (148963711-148963782) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna15-CysGCA (149035693-149035764) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna6-CysGCA (148659153-148659224) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna8-CysGCA (72499432-72499503) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna126-CysGCA (93754494-93754422) Cys (GCA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr3.trna7-CysGCA (133430705-133430634) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr15.trna3-CysGCA (77824052-77824124) Cys (GCA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna28-CysGCA (34279142-34279071) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna20-CysGCA (148917168-148917097) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna15-CysGCA (34277424-34277495) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna26-CysGCA (34564341-34564270) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna27-CysGCA (34563584-34563513) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr4.trna3-CysGCA (124649526-124649455) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna5-CysGCA (148638214-148638285) Cys (GCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna21-GlnCTG (70282391-70282464) Gln (CTG) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr20.trna1-GlnCTG (17803142-17803219) Gln (CTG) 78 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr9.trna5-GlnCTG (125695415-125695343) Gln (CTG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna3-GlnCTG (73137449-73137521) Gln (CTG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna114-GlnCTG (144943455-144943384) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna120-GlnCTG (144090748-144090677) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna121-GlnCTG (143550864-143550793) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1_random.trna1-GlnCTG (553277-553348) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna22-GlnCTG (146267561-146267632) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna131-GlnCTG (27867185-27867114) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna42-GlnCTG (27371191-27371262) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna112-GlnCTG (146204077-146204006) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna28-GlnCTG (147452749-147452820) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna15-GlnCTG (144674661-144674732) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna19-GlnCTG (145971662-145971733) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna146-GlnCTG (27623581-27623510) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr15.trna7-GlnCTG (63948525-63948454) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna3-GlnCTG (7963795-7963866) Gln (CTG) 72 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna1-GlnCTG (18944381-18944452) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna49-GlnCTG (27595287-27595358) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna99-GlnCTG (29017428-29017357) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna79-GlnTTG (37395973-37396045) Gln (TTG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna14-GlnTTG (3359814-3359885) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr4.trna4-GlnTTG (40603572-40603500) Gln (TTG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna23-GlnTTG (117499050-117498979) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna84-GlnTTG (145545552-145545623) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna130-GlnTTG (27871690-27871619) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna173-GlnTTG (26420025-26419954) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna174-GlnTTG (26419474-26419403) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna16-GlnTTG (44624889-44624960) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna29-GluCTC (147600896-147600964) Glu (CTC) 69 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr3.trna8-GluCTC (126895938-126895867) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr18.trna1-GluCTC (41553749-41553820) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna3-GluCTC (59667352-59667422) Glu (CTC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr13.trna4-GluCTC (40928132-40928061) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna59-GluCTC (247135070-247135141) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna116-GluCTC (144110661-144110590) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna71-GluCTC (159705884-159705813) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna74-GluCTC (159698504-159698433) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna77-GluCTC (159691093-159691022) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna80-GluCTC (159683713-159683642) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna77-GluCTC (29057955-29058026) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna87-GluCTC (126143157-126143086) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna31-GluTTC (147986426-147986494) Glu (TTC) 69 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna6-GluTTC (74977554-74977622) Glu (TTC) 69 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna64-GluTTC (170424230-170424162) Glu (TTC) 69 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna14-GluTTC (31306637-31306567) Glu (TTC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna94-GluTTC (147931051-147930979) Glu (TTC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna49-GluTTC (159849132-159849203) Glu (TTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna133-GluTTC (16734432-16734361) Glu (TTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna84-GluTTC (159658578-159658507) Glu (TTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna5-GluTTC (17071665-17071736) Glu (TTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr13.trna3-GluTTC (44390133-44390062) Glu (TTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr15.trna11-GluTTC (23878545-23878474) Glu (TTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr13.trna5-GluTTC (40532945-40532874) Glu (TTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna20-GluTTC (130811242-130811171) Glu (TTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna2-GlyCCC (16926367-16926437) Gly (CCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna130-GlyCCC (16877423-16877353) Gly (CCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna13-GlyCCC (19704767-19704837) Gly (CCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna34-GlyCCC (626807-626737) Gly (CCC) 71 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna27-GlyCCC (70329697-70329627) Gly (CCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna132-GlyCCC (16745091-16745021) Gly (CCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna4-GlyCCC (17061003-17061073) Gly (CCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna82-GlyGCC (142620469-142620539) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna18-GlyGCC (69380098-69380168) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna43-GlyGCC (159716980-159717050) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna25-GlyGCC (69369685-69369615) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna68-GlyGCC (159760331-159760261) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna19-GlyGCC (69380911-69380981) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna24-GlyGCC (69370513-69370443) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna5-GlyGCC (7969789-7969859) Gly (GCC) 71 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna19-GlyGCC (156965975-156965905) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna128-GlyGCC (27978735-27978665) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna35-GlyGCC (159679718-159679788) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna37-GlyGCC (159687091-159687161) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna39-GlyGCC (159694522-159694592) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna41-GlyGCC (159701882-159701952) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr21.trna2-GlyGCC (17749048-17748978) Gly (GCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna82-GlyTCC (159676656-159676585) Gly (TCC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna10-GlyTCC (8065591-8065662) Gly (TCC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna117-GlyTCC (144109292-144109221) Gly (TCC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna45-GlyTCC (159767527-159767598) Gly (TCC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna70-GlyTCC (159706242-159706171) Gly (TCC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna73-GlyTCC (159698861-159698790) Gly (TCC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna76-GlyTCC (159691451-159691380) Gly (TCC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna79-GlyTCC (159684070-159683999) Gly (TCC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna2-GlyTCC (4675082-4675153) Gly (TCC) 72 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr3.trna4-HisGTG (149799324-149799253) His (GTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna106-HisGTG (147422523-147422452) His (GTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna111-HisGTG (146241540-146241469) His (GTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna118-HisGTG (144108309-144108238) His (GTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna16-HisGTG (145011397-145011468) His (GTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna21-HisGTG (146220095-146220166) His (GTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr15.trna1-HisGTG (43280641-43280712) His (GTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr15.trna8-HisGTG (43279974-43279903) His (GTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr15.trna9-HisGTG (43278167-43278096) His (GTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna33-HisGTG (27233885-27233956) His (GTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr9.trna7-HisGTG (14424009-14423938) His (GTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna38-IleAAT (27349718-27349791) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna57-IleAAT (27744341-27744414) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna165-IleAAT (26829273-26829200) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna28-IleAAT (26888811-26888884) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna163-IleAAT (26853307-26853234) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna10-IleAAT (101853182-101853255) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna9-IleAAT (8031636-8031709) Ile (AAT) 74 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna11-IleAAT (26662329-26662402) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna154-IleAAT (27313402-27313329) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna158-IleAAT (27253046-27252973) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna34-IleAAT (8071107-8071034) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna153-IleAAT (27351042-27350969) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna59-IleAAT (27763946-27764019) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna80-IleAAT (58257213-58257286) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chrX.trna5-IleGAT (3843344-3843271) Ile (GAT) 74 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chrX.trna6-IleGAT (3804915-3804842) Ile (GAT) 74 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chrX.trna7-IleGAT (3766491-3766418) Ile (GAT) 74 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chrX_random.trna1-IleGAT (118398-118471) Ile (GAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chrX_random.trna2-IleGAT (406943-407016) Ile (GAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chrX_random.trna3-IleGAT (465544-465617) Ile (GAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chrX_random.trna4-IleGAT (399021-398948) Ile (GAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chrX_random.trna5-IleGAT (86496-86423) Ile (GAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna29-IleTAT (27096104-27096197) Ile (TAT) 94 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna55-IleTAT (27707179-27707272) Ile (TAT) 94 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna63-IleTAT (28613346-28613439) Ile (TAT) 94 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna5-IleTAT (42891180-42891272) Ile (TAT) 93 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna10-IleTAT (44594740-44594648) Ile (TAT) 93 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr3.trna5-LeuAAG (149703999-149703918) Leu (AAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr20.trna6-LeuAAG (48385830-48385749) Leu (AAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna4-LeuAAG (30131072-30131144) Leu (AAG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna126-LeuAAG (28554460-28554379) Leu (AAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna78-LeuAAG (29064758-29064839) Leu (AAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna1-LeuAAG (20148131-20148212) Leu (AAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna16-LeuAAG (22215962-22216043) Leu (AAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna7-LeuAAG (180547307-180547388) Leu (AAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna98-LeuAAG (29019459-29019378) Leu (AAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna16-LeuAAG (180533731-180533650) Leu (AAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna19-LeuAAG (180457161-180457080) Leu (AAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna3-LeuAAG (180461446-180461527) Leu (AAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna66-LeuCAA (159848443-159848360) Leu (CAA) 84 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna1-LeuCAA (9253366-9253439) Leu (CAA) 74 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna58-LeuCAA (247134677-247134782) Leu (CAA) 106 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna141-LeuCAA (27678433-27678327) Leu (CAA) 107 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna140-LeuCAA (27681503-27681396) Leu (CAA) 108 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna100-LeuCAA (28972084-28971979) Leu (CAA) 106 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna74-LeuCAA (29016809-29016913) Leu (CAA) 105 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna20-LeuCAG (159324696-159324619) Leu (CAG) 78 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna17-LeuCAG (55891364-55891446) Leu (CAG) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna26-LeuCAG (55891975-55891893) Leu (CAG) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna34-LeuCAG (159677947-159678029) Leu (CAG) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna36-LeuCAG (159685365-159685447) Leu (CAG) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna38-LeuCAG (159692746-159692828) Leu (CAG) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna40-LeuCAG (159700156-159700238) Leu (CAG) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna42-LeuCAG (159707537-159707619) Leu (CAG) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna67-LeuCAG (159766838-159766756) Leu (CAG) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna7-LeuCAG (26629415-26629497) Leu (CAG) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chrX.trna2-LeuTAA (55224554-55224480) Leu (TAA) 75 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna81-LeuTAA (69971099-69971181) Leu (TAA) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr4.trna2-LeuTAA (156604502-156604428) Leu (TAA) 75 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna155-LeuTAA (27306395-27306313) Leu (TAA) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna4-LeuTAA (59075804-59075886) Leu (TAA) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna134-LeuTAA (27796959-27796877) Leu (TAA) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna83-LeuTAA (144579377-144579459) Leu (TAA) 83 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna27-LeuTAG (22114614-22114533) Leu (TAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna2-LeuTAG (20163369-20163450) Leu (TAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna42-LeuTAG (7964438-7964357) Leu (TAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna2-LysCTT (51216476-51216548) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna6-LysCTT (57117280-57117208) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna5-LysCTT (40758590-40758662) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna24-LysCTT (26234368-26234296) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna5-LysCTT (3154940-3155012) Lys (CTT) 73 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna127-LysCTT (55196202-55196130) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr18.trna4-LysCTT (41923341-41923269) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna30-LysCTT (3170628-3170556) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna10-LysCTT (3181502-3181574) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna32-LysCTT (3147479-3147407) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna119-LysCTT (144106951-144106879) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna7-LysCTT (3165693-3165765) Lys (CTT) 73 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna11-LysCTT (180581657-180581585) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna9-LysCTT (180567361-180567433) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna13-LysCTT (26664753-26664825) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna13-LysCTT (57776438-57776366) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr15.trna2-LysCTT (76939959-76940031) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna3-LysTTT (19713207-19713277) Lys (TTT) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna7-LysTTT (54729817-54729745) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna1-LysTTT (27734573-27734645) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna53-LysTTT (27651825-27651897) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna55-LysTTT (203709894-203709966) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7 random.trna1-LysTTT (397621-397697) Lys (TTT) 77 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna71-LysTTT (28823500-28823572) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna149-LysTTT (27410820-27410748) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna5-LysTTT (59080478-59080550) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna143-LysTTT (27667644-27667572) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna54-LysTTT (202742278-202742350) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna62-LysTTT (202742853-202742781) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna14-LysTTT (59084456-59084384) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna2-LysTTT (7963198-7963270) Lys (TTT) 73 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna76-LysTTT (29026785-29026857) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna11-LysTTT (121935865-121935937) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna23-LysTTT (72069789-72069717) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr9.trna1-MetCAT (19393996-19394070) Met (CAT) 75 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna61-MetCAT (27853643-27853714) Met (CAT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna92-MetCAT (58276523-58276451) Met (CAT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna32-MetCAT (151910350-151910421) Met (CAT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna20-MetCAT (78045957-78045886) Met (CAT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna129-MetCAT (27978321-27978250) Met (CAT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna142-MetCAT (27668650-27668579) Met (CAT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna150-MetCAT (27408814-27408743) Met (CAT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna169-MetCAT (26438579-26438508) Met (CAT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna171-MetCAT (26421402-26421331) Met (CAT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna2-MetCAT (26394733-26394804) Met (CAT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna22-MetCAT (85975201-85975129) Met (CAT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna21-MetCAT (26809691-26809763) Met (CAT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna162-MetCAT (26866601-26866529) Met (CAT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna164-MetCAT (26843625-26843553) Met (CAT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna27-MetCAT (26874423-26874495) Met (CAT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna75-MetCAT (29020331-29020403) Met (CAT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna97-MetCAT (29029093-29029021) Met (CAT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna20-MetCAT (70017897-70017969) Met (CAT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna10-MetCAT (124238723-124238651) Met (CAT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna56-PheGAA (27740524-27740599) Phe (GAA) 76 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna112-PheGAA (28839426-28839353) Phe (GAA) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna72-PheGAA (28840143-28840215) Phe (GAA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna103-PheGAA (28899145-28899072) Phe (GAA) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna106-PheGAA (28883661-28883589) Phe (GAA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna13-PheGAA (59090501-59090429) Phe (GAA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna15-PheGAA (59081618-59081546) Phe (GAA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna11-PheGAA (123978414-123978342) Phe (GAA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr13.trna1-PheGAA (93999977-93999905) Phe (GAA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna14-PheGAA (1334433-1334361) Phe (GAA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna109-PheGAA (28866550-28866478) Phe (GAA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna96-PheGAA (29057500-29057428) Phe (GAA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna65-ProAGG (165951420-165951349) Pro (AGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna9-ProAGG (75624205-75624276) Pro (AGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna22-ProAGG (20151471-20151400) Pro (AGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna23-ProAGG (20147406-20147335) Pro (AGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna29-ProAGG (3172707-3172636) Pro (AGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna9-ProAGG (3179635-3179706) Pro (AGG) 72 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna12-ProAGG (26663477-26663548) Pro (AGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna2-ProAGG (128210740-128210811) Pro (AGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna11-ProAGG (3181990-3182061) Pro (AGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna4-ProAGG (3150387-3150481) Pro (AGG) 95 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna30-ProCGG (27167500-27167571) Pro (CGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna52-ProCGG (165950586-165950657) Pro (CGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna6-ProCGG (3162050-3162121) Pro (CGG) 72 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna37-ProCGG (8066947-8066876) Pro (CGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna6-ProTGG (20222015-20222086) Pro (TGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna28-ProTGG (3174205-3174134) Pro (TGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna3-ProTGG (3148924-3148995) Pro (TGG) 72 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna8-ProTGG (3178095-3178166) Pro (TGG) 72 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna14-ProTGG (180548531-180548460) Pro (TGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna12-ProTGG (75624588-75624517) Pro (TGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna3-ProTGG (20171005-20171076) Pro (TGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna17-LeuAAG (180524251-180524170) Leu (AAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr20.trna5-IleAAT (50651822-50651745) Ile (AAT) 78 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna9-IleAAT (128282151-128282225) Ile (AAT) 75 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna39-IleAAT (27359843-27359916) Ile (AAT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna1-CysACA (151968789-151968964) Cys (ACA) 176 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna41-SerACT (27369650-27369723) Ser (ACT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr20.trna2-SerAGA (29552364-29552435) Ser (AGA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna111-AlaAGC (28854594-28854523) Ala (AGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna33-ProAGG (3142681-3142610) Pro (AGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna7-ProAGG (77749101-77749171) Pro (AGG) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna8-ProAGG (87193084-87193155) Pro (AGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr10.trna3-LeuCAA (34631489-34631422) Leu (CAA) 68 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr20.trna3-ValCAC (43384415-43384487) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna1-ValCAC (16924648-16924720) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna131-ValCAC (16746819-16746747) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna3-ValCAC (17059280-17059352) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna1-GlyCCC (11609278-11609349) Gly (CCC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna91-GlyCCC (147946904-147946834) Gly (CCC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna7-ArgCCT (63418343-63418411) Arg (CCT) 69 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna88-ArgCCT (147994965-147994895) Arg (CCT) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna96-ArgCCT (147609775-147609705) Arg (CCT) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna14-ArgCCT (144652936-144653006) Arg (CCT) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna18-ArgCCT (145949915-145949985) Arg (CCT) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna11-SupCTA (77770663-77770591) Sup (CTA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr3.trna1-SupCTA (13808887-13808954) Sup (CTA) 68 bp
Homo_sapiens_chrX.trna3-GluCTC (51322923-51322852) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna14-GluCTC (112871000-112870928) Glu (CTC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna25-GluCTC (71127068-71126996) Glu (CTC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna7-GluCTC (70234894-70234968) Glu (CTC) 75 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna24-GluCTC (95580992-95580921) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr3.trna10-GluCTC (105362285-105362214) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna1-GluCTC (11830789-11830860) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr20.trna7-GluCTC (13918541-13918470) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna12-GluCTC (150927523-150927595) Glu (CTC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna18-GluCTC (159446488-159446417) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr13.trna2-GluCTC (57356622-57356551) Glu (CTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna15-GlnCTG (219199376-219199451) Gln (CTG) 76 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna128-GlnCTG (17053558-17053487) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna21-GlnCTG (151228338-151228267) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr10.trna5-GlnCTG (20076688-20076614) Gln (CTG) 75 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna27-GlnCTG (147345988-147346059) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna23-GlnCTG (146292313-146292384) Gln (CTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr15.trna6-LysCTT (74461893-74461820) Lys (CTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna13-LysCTT (3186154-3186226) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna51-LysCTT (163832774-163832846) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna8-LysCTT (39742782-39742854) Lys (CTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna9-PheGAA (124339978-124339906) Phe (GAA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna116-PheGAA (28802906-28802834) Phe (GAA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna92-PheGAA (147939600-147939529) Phe (GAA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna100-PheGAA (147554054-147553983) Phe (GAA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna88-PheGAA (79724801-79724729) Phe (GAA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr3.trna12-CysGCA (17716468-17716396) Cys (GCA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr10.trna1-ProGGG (22892585-22892657) Pro (GGG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr15.trna5-TyrGTA (90055378-90055306) Tyr (GTA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna24-TyrGTA (148684753-148684678) Tyr (GTA) 76 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna44-AspGTC (159759559-159759630) Asp (GTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna109-AsnGTT (146317757-146317684) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna104-AsnGTT (147478645-147478572) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna124-AsnGTT (142455154-142455081) Asn (GTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna13-LeuTAA (47859277-47859203) Leu (TAA) 75 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr20.trna4-LeuTAA (55366909-55366835) Leu (TAA) 75 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna60-LeuTAA (236173653-236173579) Leu (TAA) 75 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna9-LeuTAA (117497887-117497961) Leu (TAA) 75 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna86-ValTAC (156910812-156910738) Val (TAC) 75 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna15-LeuTAG (20215099-20215018) Leu (TAG) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr18.trna3-GlyTCC (53497175-53497246) Gly (TCC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr18.trna2-GlyTCC (53496852-53496923) Gly (TCC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna32-SerTGA (21952374-21952306) Ser (TGA) 69 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna10-SerTGA (131856612-131856681) Ser (TGA) 70 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna6-AlaTGC (60520084-60520153) Ala (TGC) 70 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna122-AlaTGC (28709909-28709838) Ala (TGC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna61-ProTGG (205244853-205244777) Pro (TGG) 77 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna57-ProTGG (236172485-236172556) Pro (TGG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna31-ProTGG (3161032-3160962) Pro (TGG) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr4.trna5-SupTTA (7376810-7376739) Sup (TTA) 72 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna85-GluTTC (163130072-163130004) Glu (TTC) 69 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna17-GluTTC (145016802-145016873) Glu (TTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna102-GluTTC (147545481-147545409) Glu (TTC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna17-GluTTC (203937446-203937376) Glu (TTC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna105-GluTTC (147428323-147428252) Glu (TTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna110-GluTTC (146247725-146247654) Glu (TTC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr4.trna1-GlnTTG (156603338-156603409) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna26-GlnTTG (57257993-57257922) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna15-GlnTTG (96014895-96014822) Gln (TTG) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna33-GlnTTG (19447250-19447179) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna14-GlnTTG (32992259-32992188) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna12-GlnTTG (9011428-9011356) Gln (TTG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr13.trna6-GlnTTG (35537818-35537747) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna23-GlnTTG (77354604-77354532) Gln (TTG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna11-GlnTTG (131859603-131859674) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chrY.trna1-GlnTTG (8300214-8300140) Gln (TTG) 75 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna22-GlnTTG (130746452-130746381) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna16-GlnTTG (48497531-48497457) Gln (TTG) 75 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr3.trna9-GlnTTG (108103639-108103568) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna4-GlnTTG (141149826-141149897) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chrX.trna1-GlnTTG (55223391-55223462) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna28-GlnTTG (45791017-45790945) Gln (TTG) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna2-LysTTT (18164483-18164552) Lys (TTT) 70 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna16-LysTTT (223894631-223894559) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna12-LysTTT (73125354-73125282) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna118-LysTTT (28769039-28768966) Lys (TTT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna9-LysTTT (46440054-46439982) Lys (TTT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna25-SeCTCA (35527152-35527079) SeC (TCA) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr22.trna1-SeC(e)TCA (42877870-42877955) SeC(e) (TCA) 86
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna8-SeC(e)TCA (50673785-50673700) SeC(e) (TCA) 86
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna10-SerAGA (108541249-108541330) Ser (AGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna12-SerAGA (148936400-148936471) Ser (AGA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna145-SerAGA (27629252-27629171) Ser (AGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna50-SerAGA (27607966-27608047) Ser (AGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna35-SerAGA (8070734-8070653) Ser (AGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna44-SerAGA (27554570-27554651) Ser (AGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna46-SerAGA (27571572-27571653) Ser (AGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna47-SerAGA (27578797-27578878) Ser (AGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna5-SerAGA (26435796-26435877) Ser (AGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna11-SerAGA (96351142-96351061) Ser (AGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna147-SerAGA (27617614-27617533) Ser (AGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna2-SerCGA (54870415-54870496) Ser (CGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna137-SerCGA (27748289-27748208) Ser (CGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna35-SerCGA (27285607-27285688) Ser (CGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna41-SerCGA (7983005-7982924) Ser (CGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna175-SerGCT (26413780-26413697) Ser (GCT) 84 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna62-SerGCT (28288794-28288875) Ser (GCT) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr15.trna10-SerGCT (38673396-38673315) Ser (GCT) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna7-SerGCT (8030909-8030990) Ser (GCT) 82 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna123-SerGCT (28673177-28673096) Ser (GCT) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna8-SerGCT (65872167-65872248) Ser (GCT) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna43-SerGCT (27373754-27373835) Ser (GCT) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna31-SerGCT (27173064-27173145) Ser (GCT) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna21-SerTGA (130749563-130749494) Ser (TGA) 70 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna148-SerTGA (27581667-27581586) Ser (TGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna172-SerTGA (26420884-26420803) Ser (TGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna51-SerTGA (27621447-27621528) Ser (TGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr10.trna2-SerTGA (69194267-69194348) Ser (TGA) 82 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna11-SupCTA (15349410-15349483) Sup (CTA) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr21.trna1-SupTTA (14848387-14848457) Sup (TTA) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna17-SupTTA (56218375-56218445) Sup (TTA) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna24-ThrAGT (59957453-59957380) Thr (AGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna34-ThrAGT (27238029-27238102) Thr (AGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna60-ThrAGT (27802452-27802525) Thr (AGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna40-ThrAGT (7983568-7983495) Thr (AGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna69-ThrAGT (28801774-28801847) Thr (AGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna135-ThrAGT (27760526-27760453) Thr (AGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna167-ThrAGT (26641197-26641124) Thr (AGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna36-ThrAGT (8070351-8070278) Thr (AGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna8-ThrAGT (8031203-8031276) Thr (AGT) 74 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna4-ThrAGT (38359803-38359876) Thr (AGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna151-ThrCGT (27379618-27379547) Thr (CGT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna54-ThrCGT (27694114-27694187) Thr (CGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna14-ThrCGT (26901213-26901284) Thr (CGT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna121-ThrCGT (28724036-28723963) Thr (CGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr16.trna15-ThrCGT (14287251-14287322) Thr (CGT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna125-ThrCGT (28564822-28564749) Thr (CGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna13-ThrTGT (180551364-180551293) Thr (TGT) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna4-ThrTGT (20219689-20219761) Thr (TGT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna20-ThrTGT (20169231-20169159) Thr (TGT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna21-ThrTGT (20151861-20151789) Thr (TGT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna56-ThrTGT (220704970-220705042) Thr (TGT) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna127-ThrTGT (28550381-28550308) Thr (TGT) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna19-TrpCCA (45246849-45246776) Trp (CCA) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna1-TrpCCA (98905243-98905314) Trp (CCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr12.trna6-TrpCCA (97422161-97422232) Trp (CCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna6-TrpCCA (8030401-8030472) Trp (CCA) 72 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna168-TrpCCA (26439722-26439651) Trp (CCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna170-TrpCCA (26427380-26427309) Trp (CCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna12-TrpCCA (19352086-19352157) Trp (CCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr17.trna39-TrpCCA (8064983-8064912) Trp (CCA) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr9.trna3-TrpCCA (114656810-114656908) Trp (CCA) 99 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna14-TyrATA (218818794-218818886) Tyr (ATA) 93 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr7.trna9-TyrGTA (148886066-148886138) Tyr (GTA) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna19-TyrGTA (20191191-20191098) Tyr (GTA) 94 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna18-TyrGTA (20195556-20195463) Tyr (GTA) 94 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna17-TyrGTA (20198050-20197957) Tyr (GTA) 94 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna16-TyrGTA (20201284-20201191) Tyr (GTA) 94 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr14.trna5-TyrGTA (20221272-20221360) Tyr (GTA) 89 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna14-TyrGTA (26677065-26677155) Tyr (GTA) 91 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna15-TyrGTA (26683777-26683866) Tyr (GTA) 90 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna16-TyrGTA (26685311-26685399) Tyr (GTA) 89 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna17-TyrGTA (26703081-26703169) Tyr (GTA) 89 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr2.trna2-TyrGTA (27127154-27127242) Tyr (GTA) 89 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna12-TyrGTA (66772173-66772086) Tyr (GTA) 88 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna4-TyrGTA (67188156-67188248) Tyr (GTA) 93 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr8.trna5-TyrGTA (67188777-67188865) Tyr (GTA) 89 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna63-ValAAC (178450971-178450899) Val (AAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna115-ValAAC (28811256-28811185) Val (AAC) 72 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna37-ValAAC (27311267-27311339) Val (AAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna136-ValAAC (27756936-27756864) Val (AAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna139-ValAAC (27726758-27726686) Val (AAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna15-ValAAC (180548094-180548022) Val (AAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr3.trna2-ValAAC (170972712-170972784) Val (AAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna12-ValAAC (180577948-180577876) Val (AAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna4-ValAAC (180523760-180523832) Val (AAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna5-ValAAC (180529216-180529288) Val (AAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna132-ValAAC (27829230-27829158) Val (AAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna58-ValCAC (27758467-27758540) Val (CAC) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna129-ValCAC (16879160-16879088) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna32-ValCAC (27226001-27226073) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna99-ValCAC (147561360-147561290) Val (CAC) 71 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna133-ValCAC (27804378-27804306) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna157-ValCAC (27281918-27281846) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna90-ValCAC (147950785-147950712) Val (CAC) 74 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna98-ValCAC (147565251-147565179) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr19.trna13-ValCAC (4675719-4675647) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna152-ValCAC (27356100-27356028) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr1.trna85-ValCAC (159636186-159636114) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna10-ValCAC (180582073-180582001) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna18-ValCAC (180461931-180461859) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna2-ValCAC (180456676-180456748) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr5.trna6-ValCAC (180533256-180533328) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna9-ValCAC (26646261-26646333) Val (CAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna40-ValTAC (27366384-27366456) Val (TAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr10.trna6-ValTAC (5935752-5935680) Val (TAC) 73 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna16-ValTAC (59075108-59075036) Val (TAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr11.trna17-ValTAC (59074750-59074678) Val (TAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chrX.trna4-ValTAC (18603022-18602950) Val (TAC) 73 bp
Homo_sapiens_chr9.trna8-GlnTTG (5085156-5085085) Gln (TTG) 72 bp Sc:
Homo_sapiens_chr6.trna64-GlnTTG (28665135-28665206) Gln (TTG) 72 bp
This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/590,344, filed May 9, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/808,863, with a 371 filing date of Mar. 29, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,676,810, which is a 35 U.S.C. § 371 national phase application of International Application No. PCT/US2011/043400, filed Jul. 8, 2011, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/362,526, filed Jul. 8, 2010, the entire contents of each of which are incorporated by reference herein.
This invention was made with government support under grant No. AI0658568 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 61362526 | Jul 2010 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 15590344 | May 2017 | US |
| Child | 16577857 | US | |
| Parent | 13808863 | Mar 2013 | US |
| Child | 15590344 | US |
