Patent Grant
8987028
This invention relates generally to lattice-mismatched semiconductor heterostructures and, more specifically, to the selective channel material regrowth in connection with the integration of dissimilar semiconductor materials.
The increasing operating speeds and computing power of microelectronic devices have recently given rise to the need for an increase in the complexity and functionality of the semiconductor structures from which that these devices are fabricated. Hetero-integration of dissimilar semiconductor materials, for example, III-V materials, such as gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, indium aluminum arsenide, and/or germanium with silicon or silicon-germanium substrate, is an attractive path to increasing the functionality and performance of the CMOS platform. In particular, heteroepitaxial growth can be used to fabricate many modern semiconductor devices where lattice-matched substrates are not commercially available or to potentially achieve monolithic integration with silicon microelectronics. Performance and, ultimately, the utility of devices fabricated using a combination of dissimilar semiconductor materials, however, depends on the quality of the resulting structure. Specifically, a low level of dislocation defects is important in a wide variety of semiconductor devices and processes, because dislocation defects partition an otherwise monolithic crystal structure and introduce unwanted and abrupt changes in electrical and optical properties, which, in turn, results in poor material quality and limited performance. In addition, the threading dislocation segments can degrade physical properties of the device material and can lead to premature device failure.
As mentioned above, dislocation defects typically arise in efforts to epitaxially grow one kind of crystalline material on a substrate of a different kind of material—often referred to as “heterostructure”—due to different crystalline lattice sizes of the two materials. This lattice mismatch between the starting substrate and subsequent layer(s) creates stress during material deposition that generates dislocation defects in the semiconductor structure.
Misfit dislocations form at the mismatched interface to relieve the misfit strain. Many misfit dislocations have vertical components, termed “threading segments,” which terminate at the surface. These threading segments continue through all semiconductor layers subsequently added to the heterostructure. In addition, dislocation defects can arise in the epitaxial growth of the same material as the underlying substrate where the substrate itself contains dislocations. Some of the dislocations replicate as threading dislocations in the epitaxially grown material. Other kinds of dislocation defects include stacking faults, twin boundaries, and anti-phase boundaries. Such dislocations in the active regions of semiconductor devices, such as diodes, lasers and transistors, may significantly degrade performance.
To minimize formation of dislocations and associated performance issues, many semiconductor heterostructure devices known in the art have been limited to semiconductor layers that have very closely—e.g. within 0.1%—lattice-matched crystal structures. In such devices a thin layer is epitaxially grown on a mildly lattice-mismatched substrate. As long as the thickness of the epitaxial layer is kept below a critical thickness for defect formation, the substrate acts as a template for growth of the epitaxial layer, which elastically conforms to the substrate template. While lattice matching and near matching eliminate dislocations in a number of structures, there are relatively few lattice-matched systems with large energy band offsets, limiting the design options for new devices.
Accordingly, there is considerable interest in heterostructure devices involving greater epitaxial layer thickness and greater lattice misfit than known approaches would allow. For example, it has long been recognized that gallium arsenide grown on silicon substrates would permit a variety of new optoelectronic devices marrying the electronic processing technology of silicon VLSI circuits with the optical component technology available in gallium arsenide. See, for example, Choi et al, “Monolithic Integration of Si MOSFET's and GaAs MESFET's”, IEEE Electron Device Letters, Vol. EDL-7, No. 4, April 1986. Highly advantageous results of such a combination include high-speed gallium arsenide circuits combined with complex silicon VLSI circuits, and gallium arsenide optoelectronic interface units to replace wire interconnects between silicon VLSI circuits. Progress has been made in integrating gallium arsenide and silicon devices. See, for example, Choi et al, “Monolithic Integration of GaAs/AlGaAs Double-Heterostructure LED's and Si MOSFET's” IEEE Electron Device Letters, Vol. EDL-7, No. 9, September 1986; Shichijo et al, “Co-Integration of GaAs MESFET and Si CMOS Circuits”, IEEE Electron Device Letters, Vol. 9, No. 9, September 1988. However, despite the widely recognized potential advantages of such combined structures and substantial efforts to develop them, their practical utility has been limited by high defect densities in gallium arsenide layers grown on silicon substrates. See, for example, Choi et al, “Monolithic Integration of GaAs/AlGaAs LED and Si Driver Circuit”, IEEE Electron Device Letters, Vol. 9, No. 10, October 1988 (p. 513). Thus, while basic techniques are known for integrating gallium arsenide and silicon devices, there exists a need for producing gallium arsenide layers having a low density of dislocation defects.
To control dislocation densities in highly-mismatched deposited layers, there are three known techniques: wafer bonding of dissimilar materials, substrate patterning, and composition grading. Bonding of two different semiconductors may yield satisfactory material quality. Due to the limited availability and high cost of large size Ge or III-V wafers, however, the approach may not be practical.
Techniques involving substrate patterning exploit the fact that the threading dislocations are constrained by geometry, i.e. that a dislocation cannot end in a crystal. If the free edge is brought closer to another free edge by patterning the substrate into smaller growth areas, then it is possible to reduce threading dislocation densities. In the past, a combination of substrate patterning and epitaxial lateral overgrowth (“ELO”) techniques was demonstrated to greatly reduce defect densities in gallium nitride device, leading to fabrication of laser diodes with extended lifetimes. This process substantially eliminates defects in ELO regions but highly defective seed windows remain, necessitating repetition of the lithography and epitaxial steps to eliminate all defects. In a similar approach, pendeo-epitaxy eliminates substantially all defects in the epitaxial region proximate to the substrate but requires one lithography and two epitaxial growth steps. Furthermore, both techniques require the increased lateral growth rate of gallium nitride, which has not been demonstrated in all heteroepitaxial systems. Thus, a general defect-reduction process utilizing a minimum of lithography/epitaxy steps that does not rely on increased lateral growth rates would be advantageous both to reduce process complexity and facilitate applicability to various materials systems.
Another known technique termed “epitaxial necking” was demonstrated in connection with fabricating a Ge-on-Si heterostructure by Langdo et al. in “High Quality Ge on Si by Epitaxial Necking,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 76, No. 25, April 2000. This approach offers process simplicity by utilizing a combination of selective epitaxial growth and defect crystallography to force defects to the sidewall of the opening in the patterning mask, without relying on increased lateral growth rates. Specifically, as shown in
Thus, there is a need in the art for versatile and efficient methods of fabricating semiconductor heterostructures that would constrain dislocation defects in a variety of lattice-mismatched materials systems. There is also a need in the art for semiconductor devices utilizing a combination of integrated lattice-mismatched materials with reduced levels of dislocation defects for improved functionality and performance.
Accordingly, embodiments of the present invention provide semiconductor heterostructures with significantly minimized interface defects, and methods for their fabrication, that overcome the limitations of known techniques. In contrast with the prior art approach of minimizing dislocation defects by limiting misfit epitaxial layers to less than their critical thicknesses for elastic conformation to the substrate, in its various embodiments, the present invention utilizes greater thicknesses and limited lateral areas of component semiconductor layers to produce limited-area regions having upper portions substantially exhausted of threading dislocations and other dislocation defects such as stacking faults, twin boundaries, or anti-phase boundaries. As a result, the invention contemplates fabrication of semiconductor devices based on monolithic lattice-mismatched heterostructures long sought in the art but heretofore impractical due to dislocation defects.
In particular applications, the invention features semiconductor structures of Ge or III-V devices integrated with a Si substrate, such as, for example, an optoelectronic device including a gallium arsenide layer disposed over a silicon wafer, as well as features methods of producing semiconductor structures that contemplate integrating Ge or III-V materials on selected areas on a Si substrate.
In general, in one aspect, the invention is directed to a method of forming a semiconductor heterostructure. The method includes providing a substrate that contains, or consists essentially of, a first semiconductor material, and then providing a dislocation-blocking mask over the substrate. The mask has an opening extending to the surface of the substrate and defined by at least one sidewall. At least a portion of the sidewall meets the surface of the substrate at an orientation angle to a selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material. The method further includes depositing in the opening a regrowth layer that includes a second semiconductor material, such that the orientation angle causes threading dislocations in the regrowth layer to decrease in density with increasing distance from the surface of the substrate. The dislocation-blocking mask may include a dielectric material, such as, for example, silicon dioxide or silicon nitride.
Embodiments of this aspect of the invention include one or more of the following features. An overgrowth layer that includes the second semiconductor material can be deposited over the regrowth layer and over at least a portion of the dislocation-blocking mask. At least at least a portion of the overgrowth layer can be crystallized. The regrowth layer can be planarized, for example, such that, following the planarizing step, a planarized surface of regrowth layer is substantially co-planar with a top surface of the dislocation-blocking mask. The planarizing step may include chemical-mechanical polishing.
In addition, in various embodiments of the invention, the first semiconductor material is silicon or a silicon germanium alloy. The second semiconductor material can include, or consist essentially of, either a group II, a group III, a group IV, a group V, or a group VI element, or a combination thereof, for example, germanium, silicon germanium, gallium arsenide, aluminum antimonide, indium aluminum antimonide, indium antimonide, indium arsenide, indium phosphide, or gallium nitride. In some embodiments, the second semiconductor material is compositionally graded.
In many embodiments of the invention, the selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material is aligned with at least one direction of propagation of threading dislocations in the regrowth layer. In certain versions of these embodiment, the orientation angle ranges from about 30 to about 60 degrees, for example, is about 45 degrees.
The surface of the substrate may have (100), (110), or (111) crystallographic orientation. In some embodiments, the selected crystallographic direction is substantially aligned with a <110> crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material. In other embodiments, the portion of the sidewall meets the surface of the substrate in substantial alignment with a <100> crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material.
In certain embodiments of this and other aspects of the invention, the first semiconductor material is non-polar, the second semiconductor material is polar, and the orientation angle causes anti-phase boundaries in the regrowth layer to decrease in density with increasing distance from the surface of the substrate. In some embodiments, the threading dislocations terminate at the sidewall of the opening in the dislocation-blocking mask at or below a predetermined distance H from the surface of the substrate. In some versions of these embodiments, the opening in the dislocation-blocking mask has a variable width. In other versions, the sidewall of the opening in the dislocation-blocking mask includes a first portion disposed proximal to the surface of the substrate, and a second portion disposed above the first portion. A height of the first portion can be at least equal to the predetermined distance H from the surface of the substrate. The first portion of the sidewall can be substantially parallel to the second portion. Also, in some versions, the second portion of the sidewall is flared outwardly. Further, in certain embodiments of this and other aspects of the invention, the orientation angle causes stacking faults and/or twin boundaries in the regrowth layer to decrease in density with increasing distance from the surface of the substrate.
Further yet, in certain embodiments of this and other aspects of the invention, the sidewall of the opening in the dislocation-blocking mask has a height at least equal to a predetermined distance H from the surface of the substrate. In these embodiments, the opening is substantially rectangular and has a predetermined width W that is smaller than a length L of the opening. For example, the width W of the opening can be less than about 500 nm, and the length L of the opening can exceed each of W and H. In some versions of these embodiments, the substrate consists essentially of silicon and has a (100) crystallographic orientation, the orientation angle is about 45 degrees to the direction of propagation of defects in the regrowth layer, and the predetermined distance H is at least W √2. In other versions, the substrate consists essentially of silicon and has a (110) crystallographic orientation, the orientation angle is about 45 degrees, and the predetermined distance H is at least W √6/3. In still other versions, the substrate consists essentially of silicon and has a (111) crystallographic orientation, the orientation angle is about 45 degrees, and the predetermined distance H is at least 2W.
In other embodiments of this aspect of the invention, the method additionally includes depositing a lattice-mismatched layer over at least a portion of the substrate prior to providing the dislocation-blocking mask thereon. The lattice-mismatched layer preferably includes a third semiconductor material and is at least partially relaxed. The lattice-mismatched layer can be planarized prior to providing the dislocation-blocking mask. The second semiconductor material and the third semiconductor material can be or include the same semiconductor material.
In general, in another aspect, the invention features a method of forming a semiconductor heterostructure that begins with providing a substrate including a first semiconductor material. The method additionally includes providing a dislocation-blocking mask over the substrate. The mask has an opening extending to the surface of the substrate and defined by at least one sidewall. At least a portion of the sidewall meets the surface of the substrate at an orientation angle to a selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material. The method further includes the steps of depositing in the opening a regrowth layer that includes a second semiconductor material and subjecting the regrowth layer to thermal cycling, thereby causing threading dislocations to terminate at the sidewall of the opening in the dislocation-blocking mask at or below a predetermined distance from the surface of the substrate.
In various embodiments of this and other aspects of the invention, threading dislocations (and/or other dislocation defects such as stacking faults, twin boundaries, or anti-phase boundaries) in the regrowth layer decrease in density with increasing distance from the surface of the substrate. The first semiconductor material may include, or consist essentially of, silicon or a silicon germanium alloy. The second semiconductor material may include, or consist essentially of, a group II, a group III, a group IV, a group V, and/or a group VI element, and/or combinations thereof, for example, selected from the group consisting of germanium, silicon germanium, gallium arsenide, and gallium nitride. In some embodiments, the second semiconductor material is compositionally graded.
Generally, in yet another aspect, the invention focuses on a semiconductor structure that includes a substrate and a dislocation-blocking mask disposed over the substrate. The substrate includes, or consists essentially of, a first semiconductor material, such as, for example, silicon or a silicon germanium alloy. The dislocation-blocking mask may include a dielectric material, such as, for example, silicon dioxide or silicon nitride. The mask has an opening extending to the surface of the substrate and defined by at least one sidewall at least a portion of which meeting the surface of the substrate at an orientation angle to a selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material. A regrowth layer comprising a second semiconductor material is formed in the opening, such that the orientation angle causes threading dislocations and/or other dislocation defects such as stacking faults, twin boundaries, or anti-phase boundaries in the regrowth layer to decrease in density with increasing distance from the surface of the substrate.
In various embodiments of this aspect of the invention, the threading dislocations terminate at the sidewall of the opening in the dislocation-blocking mask at or below a predetermined distance H from the surface of the substrate. In some embodiments of this aspect of the invention, the selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material is aligned with at least one propagation direction of threading dislocations in the regrowth layer. In certain versions of these embodiments, the orientation angle ranges from about 30 to about 60 degrees, for example, is about 45 degrees.
The surface of the substrate may have (100), (110), or (111) crystallographic orientation. In some embodiments, the selected crystallographic direction is substantially aligned with a <110> crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material. In other embodiments, the portion of the sidewall meets the surface of the substrate in substantial alignment with a <100> crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material.
Also, certain embodiments of this aspect of the invention include an overgrowth layer disposed over the regrowth layer and over at least a portion of the dislocation-blocking mask, as well as a lattice-mismatched layer disposed over at least a portion of the substrate underneath the dislocation-blocking mask. The overgrowth layer and/or the lattice-mismatched layer may include a second semiconductor material and may be at least partially relaxed.
Further, in still another aspect, the invention features a semiconductor device formed over a substrate that includes a source region, a drain region, and a channel region therebetween. The substrate includes, or consists essentially of, a first semiconductor material, for example, a silicon. Also, a dislocation-blocking mask is disposed over the substrate. The mask has an opening extending to the surface of the substrate and is defined by at least one sidewall. The device additionally includes a regrowth region formed in the opening. At least a portion of the sidewall meets the surface of the substrate at an orientation angle to a selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material, for example, about 45 degrees to the direction of propagation of threading dislocations in the regrowth region. The regrowth region has a first portion disposed proximal to the surface of the substrate, where threading dislocations and/or other dislocation defects such as stacking faults, twin boundaries, or anti-phase boundaries in the regrowth region substantially terminate, and a second portion disposed above the first portion and having the channel region formed therein. The first portion of the regrowth region includes a second semiconductor material and the second portion includes a third semiconductor material. The second and third semiconductor materials may be, or include, the same material.
In one embodiment, the semiconductor substrate includes a silicon wafer, an insulating layer disposed thereon, and a strained semiconductor layer disposed on the insulating layer. The strained semiconductor layer may include silicon or germanium. As used herein, the term “strain” encompasses uniaxial and biaxial strain, as well as tensile and compressive strain. In another embodiment, the semiconductor substrate includes a silicon wafer, a compositionally uniform relaxed Si1-xGex layer (where 0<x<1) deposited thereon, a strained silicon layer deposited on the relaxed Si1-xGex layer. A compositionally graded Si1-xGex layer can be disposed between the compositionally uniform Si1-xGex relaxed layer and the silicon wafer. Also, an insulating layer can be disposed between the compositionally uniform relaxed Si1-xGex layer and the silicon wafer. In yet another embodiment, at least partially relaxed lattice-mismatched layer is disposed between at least a portion of the substrate and the dislocation-blocking mask.
The second semiconductor material and/or the third semiconductor material can include, or consist essentially of, a group II, a group III, a group IV, a group V, and/or a group VI element, and/or combinations thereof, for example, germanium, silicon germanium, gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, indium aluminum arsenide, indium gallium arsenide, indium gallium phosphide, aluminum antimonide, indium aluminum antimonide, indium antimonide, and/or indium phosphide. In some embodiments, the first portion of the regrowth region may include silicon germanium and the second portion of the regrowth region may include a layer of strained germanium or strained silicon germanium. In other embodiments, the first portion of the regrowth region includes indium phosphide and the second portion of the regrowth region includes a layer of indium gallium arsenide disposed over a layer of indium aluminum arsenide. In other embodiments, the first portion of the regrowth region may include indium aluminum antimonide and the second portion of the regrowth region may include a layer of indium antimonide.
In various embodiments of the invention, the selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material is aligned with at least one propagation direction of threading dislocations in the regrowth region. Threading dislocations in the regrowth region may substantially terminate at the sidewall of the opening in the dislocation-blocking mask at or below a predetermined distance from the surface of the substrate. The dislocation-blocking mask may include a dielectric material, for example, silicon dioxide or silicon nitride. In a particular embodiment, the dislocation-blocking mask includes a silicon nitride layer disposed over a silicon dioxide layer.
In certain embodiments, the source region and the drain region of the device are epitaxially deposited over the dislocation-blocking mask; for example, they may represent a structure epitaxially deposited over the dislocation-blocking mask proximal to the regrowth region following formation thereof. In some versions of these embodiments, the structure includes a first material forming a Schottky junction at the interface with the regrowth region. The structure may further include a second material, which may be strained, unstrained, or amorphous. A gate insulator can be disposed over the regrowth region, and, in some embodiments, a silicon layer having thickness ranging from about 5 Å to about 15 Å is disposed between the gate insulator and the regrowth region.
In general, in still another aspect, the invention features an integrated circuit that includes a substrate and a dislocation-blocking mask disposed over the substrate. The mask has an opening extending to the surface of the substrate and defined by at least one sidewall. The substrate includes, or consists essentially of, a first semiconductor material, such as, for example, silicon. At least a portion of the sidewall meets the surface of the substrate at an orientation angle to a selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material. The integrated circuit also includes a regrowth region formed in the opening. The regrowth region has a first portion disposed proximal to the surface of the substrate, and threading dislocations and/or other dislocation defects such as stacking faults, twin boundaries, or anti-phase boundaries in the regrowth region substantially terminate in the first portion. The regrowth layer also has a second portion disposed above the first portion. The first and second portions include, or consist essentially of, either different or the same semiconductor material(s). Further, a p-transistor is formed over a first area of the semiconductor substrate and an n-transistor is formed over a second area of the semiconductor substrate, each transistor has a channel through the second portion of the regrowth region. The transistors are interconnected in a CMOS circuit.
In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a method of forming a non-planar FET. The method begins with providing a substrate that includes, or consists essentially of, a first semiconductor material, such as, for example, silicon. The method further includes the steps of providing a dislocation-blocking mask over the substrate and forming an opening in the mask extending to the surface of the substrate and defined by at least one sidewall. The mask has a first dielectric layer disposed over a second dielectric layer. At least a portion of the sidewall meets the surface of the substrate at an orientation angle to a selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material. The method additionally includes selectively forming in the opening a regrowth region that contains a second semiconductor material. The orientation angle and/or the image force causes threading dislocations and/or other dislocation defects such as stacking faults, twin boundaries, or anti-phase boundaries in the regrowth region to decrease in density with increasing distance from the surface of the substrate. The method further includes selectively removing at least a portion of the first dielectric layer to expose at least a portion of the regrowth region, thereby forming a semiconductor fin structure. A gate dielectric region is provided over at least a portion of the fin structure. A gate contact is disposed over the gate dielectric region. A source region and a drain region can be formed in the fin structure. The regrowth region can be planarized, for example, by chemical-mechanical polishing, prior to selectively removing at least a portion of the first dielectric layer.
Also, in a further aspect, the invention contemplates a method of forming an optoelectronic device. The method begins with providing a substrate that includes, or consists essentially of, a first semiconductor material, such as, for example, silicon. The method further includes the steps of providing a dislocation-blocking mask over the substrate and forming an opening in the mask extending to the surface of the substrate. The opening is defined by at least one sidewall. At least a portion of the sidewall meets the surface of the substrate at an orientation angle to a selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material. The method additionally includes selectively depositing in the opening a first portion of the regrowth region that contains, or consists essentially of, a second semiconductor material, while in situ doping the second semiconductor material until thickness of the first portion approximates or exceeds the predetermined distance. The orientation angle causes threading dislocations and/or other dislocation defects such as stacking faults, twin boundaries, or anti-phase boundaries in the first portion to substantially terminate at or below a predetermined distance from the surface of the substrate. The method continues with the step of selectively depositing a second portion of the regrowth region that contains, or consists essentially of, a third semiconductor material, in the opening to a thickness selected to achieve a predetermined level of absorption of incident light; and then forming a doped region in the second portion. In various embodiments, the method further includes, prior to providing a dislocation-blocking mask, the step of forming a p-type or n-type region in the substrate.
In the drawings, like reference characters generally refer to the same parts throughout the different views. Also, the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead generally being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. In the following description, various embodiments of the present invention are described with reference to the following drawings, in which:
In accordance with its various embodiments, the present invention contemplates fabrication of monolithic lattice-mismatched semiconductor heterostructures with limited area regions having upper surfaces substantially exhausted of threading dislocations and other dislocation defects, as well as fabrication of semiconductor devices based on such lattice-mismatched heterostructures.
Silicon (Si) is recognized as presently being the most ubiquitous semiconductor for the electronics industry. Most of silicon that is used to form silicon wafers is formed from single crystal silicon. The silicon wafers serve as the substrate on which CMOS devices are formed. The silicon wafers are also referred to as a semiconductor substrate or a semiconductor wafer. While described in connection with silicon substrates, however, the use of substrates that include, or consist essentially of, other semiconductor materials, is contemplated without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention.
In crystalline silicon, the atoms which make up the solid are arranged in a periodic fashion. If the periodic arrangement exists throughout the entire solid, the substance is defined as being formed of a single crystal. If the solid is composed of a myriad of single crystal regions the solid is referred to as polycrystalline material. As readily understood by skilled artisans, periodic arrangement of atoms in a crystal is called the lattice. The crystal lattice also contains a volume which is representative of the entire lattice and is referred to as a unit cell that is regularly repeated throughout the crystal. For example, silicon has a diamond cubic lattice structure, which can be represented as two interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices. Thus, the simplicity of analyzing and visualizing cubic lattices can be extended to characterization of silicon crystals. In the description herein, references to various planes in silicon crystals will be made, especially to the (100), (110), and (111) planes. These planes define the orientation of the plane of silicon atoms relative to the principle crystalline axes. The numbers {xyz} are referred to as Miller indices and are determined from the reciprocals of the points at which the crystal plane of silicon intersects the principle crystalline axes. Thus,
As discussed above, there is a need in the art for versatile and efficient methods of fabricating semiconductor heterostructures that would constrain substrate interface defects in a variety of lattice-mismatched materials systems. One conventional technique mentioned above that addresses control of threading dislocation densities in highly-mismatched deposited layers, termed “epitaxial necking,” is applicable only to devices with relatively small lateral dimensions. Specifically, in the prior art, metal oxide semiconductor (“MOS”) transistors are typically fabricated on (100) silicon wafers with the gates oriented such that current flows parallel to the <110> directions. Thus, for a FET device built on a (100) Si wafer with device channel orientation aligning with the <110> direction, both the channel width and channel length should be small compared to the height of a epitaxial necking mask, in order for the dislocations in a lattice-mismatched semiconductor layer to terminate at a sidewall of the mask on both directions. However, in modern CMOS circuits, the MOSFET device width often substantially exceeds the channel length, which, as a result of CMOS scaling, is frequently very small. Accordingly, under the conventional necking approach, a number of dislocations will not be terminated at the sidewall of the mask in the direction of the channel width.
In contrast with the prior art approach of minimizing dislocation defects, in its various embodiments, the present invention addresses the limitations of known techniques, by utilizing greater thicknesses and limited lateral areas of component semiconductor layers to produce limited-area regions having upper portions substantially exhausted of dislocation defects. Referring to
A dislocation-blocking mask 320 is disposed over the substrate. The mask has an opening 325 extending to the surface of the substrate and defined by at least one sidewall 330. In various embodiments, the opening 325 is generally rectangular. The dislocation-blocking mask may include a dielectric material, such as, for example, silicon dioxide or silicon nitride. At least a portion of the sidewall meets the surface of the substrate at an orientation angle α to a selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material. In addition, at least a portion of the sidewall is generally vertical, i.e. disposed at about 80 to 120 degrees to the surface of the substrate, and, in a particular embodiment, substantially perpendicular to the surface of the substrate.
A regrowth layer 340 that includes a second semiconductor material is deposited in the opening. In one embodiment, the selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material is aligned with direction of propagation of threading dislocations in the regrowth layer. In certain embodiments, the orientation angle ranges from about 30 to about 60 degrees, for example, is about 45 degrees to such crystallographic direction. The surface of the substrate may have (100), (110), or (111) crystallographic orientation. In some embodiments, the selected crystallographic direction is substantially aligned with a <110> crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material.
In various embodiments, the first semiconductor material may include, or consist essentially of, silicon or a silicon germanium alloy. The second semiconductor material may include, or consist essentially of, a group II, a group III, a group IV, a group V, and/or a group VI element, and/or combinations thereof, for example, selected from the group consisting of germanium, silicon germanium, gallium arsenide, aluminum antimonide, indium aluminum antimonide, indium antimonide, indium arsenide, indium phosphide, and gallium nitride.
The regrowth layer can be formed in the opening by selective epitaxial growth in any suitable epitaxial deposition system, including, but not limited to, atmospheric-pressure CVD (APCVD), low- (or reduced-) pressure CVD (LPCVD), ultra-high-vacuum CVD (UHVCVD), by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), or by atomic layer deposition (ALD). In the CVD process, selective epitaxial growth typically includes introducing a source gas into the chamber. The source gas may include at least one precursor gas and a carrier gas, such as, for example hydrogen. The reactor chamber is heated, such as, for example, by RF-heating. The growth temperature in the chamber ranges from about 300° C. to about 900° C. depending on the composition of the regrowth layer. The growth system also may utilize low-energy plasma to enhance the layer growth kinetics.
The epitaxial growth system may be a single-wafer or multiple-wafer batch reactor. Suitable CVD systems commonly used for volume epitaxy in manufacturing applications include, for example, EPI CENTURA single-wafer multi-chamber systems available from Applied Materials of Santa Clara, Calif., or EPSILON single-wafer epitaxial reactors available from ASM International based in Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
In some embodiments, the regrowth layer is compositionally graded, for example, includes Si and Ge with a grading rate in the range of >5% Ge/μm to 100% Ge/μm, preferably between 5% Ge/μm and 50% Ge/μm, to a final Ge content of between about 10% to about 100% While the overall grading rate of the graded layer is generally defined as the ratio of total change in Ge content to the total thickness of the layer, a “local grading rate” within a portion of the graded layer may be different from the overall grading rate. For example, a graded layer including a 1 μm region graded from 0% Ge to 10% Ge (a local grading rate of 10% Ge/μm) and a 1 μm region graded from 10% Ge to 30% Ge (a local grading rate of 20% Ge/μm) will have an overall grading rate of 15% Ge/μm. Thus, the regrowth layer may not necessarily have a linear profile, but may comprise smaller regions having different local grading rates. In various embodiments, the graded regrowth layer is grown, for example, at 600-1200° C. Higher growth temperatures, for example, exceeding 900° C. may be preferred to enable faster growth rates while minimizing the nucleation of threading dislocations. See, generally, U.S. Pat. No. 5,221,413, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
In a particular embodiment, the first semiconductor material is silicon and the second semiconductor material is germanium. In this embodiment, threading dislocations 350 in the regrowth layer propagate along a <110> direction, and lie at an angle of 45-degrees to the surface of the first semiconductor material. The dislocation mask having a generally rectangular opening is disposed over the substrate such that the sidewall of the opening is disposed at a 45-degree angle to a <100> direction and is substantially aligned with a <110> crystallographic direction. As a result of such orientation of the opening, dislocations will reach and terminate at the sidewalls of the opening in the dislocation-blocking mask at or below a predetermined distance H from the surface of the substrate, such that threading dislocations in the regrowth layer decrease in density with increasing distance from the surface of the substrate. Accordingly, the upper portion of the regrowth layer is substantially exhausted of threading dislocations, enabling formation of semiconductor devices having increased channel width.
In certain versions of this and other embodiments of the invention, the sidewall of the opening in the dislocation-blocking mask has a height at least equal to a predetermined distance H from the surface of the substrate. In these embodiments, the opening is substantially rectangular and has a predetermined width W that is smaller than a length L of the opening. For example, the width W of the opening can be less than about 500 nm, and the length L of the opening can exceed each of W and H. In some versions of these embodiments, the substrate consists essentially of silicon and has a (100) crystallographic orientation, the orientation angle is about 45 degrees to propagation of dislocations in the regrowth layer, and the predetermined distance H is at least W √2. In other versions, the substrate consists essentially of silicon and has a (110) crystallographic orientation, the orientation angle is about 45 degrees, and the predetermined distance H is at least W √6/3. In still other versions, the substrate consists essentially of silicon and has a (111) crystallographic orientation, the orientation angle is about 45 degrees, and the predetermined distance H is at least 2W.
In various embodiments of the invention, blocking of the dislocations is promoted both by geometry and orientation of the mask discussed above as well as because of the ‘image force’ whereby dislocations are attracted to substantially vertical surfaces, as explained in more detail below. In many embodiments, the image force alone is sufficient to cause the upper portion of the regrowth layer to be substantially exhausted of threading dislocations and other dislocation defects.
As skilled artisans will readily recognize, a dislocation near a surface experiences forces generally not encountered in the bulk of a crystal, and, in particular, is attracted towards a free surface because the material is effectively more compliant there and the dislocation energy is lower. See Hull & Bacon, Introduction to Dislocations, 4th edition, Steel Times (2001). Image force is determined by material properties of the semiconductor being grown, as well as the distance between a given dislocation and the free surface. Thus, even when the dislocations have an orientation that does not favor trapping at sidewalls, the approach discussed above is still effective at certain dimensions because of the boundary forces that draw dislocations to free surfaces in order to reduce the elastic energy of the crystal. Mathematically, these forces arise because the boundary conditions of the expressions for strain require strain components normal to a surface to be zero at that surface. Thus, force per unit of dislocation length on an edge dislocation, toward a vertical sidewall can be represented by the formula:
where
F1=Image force
G=Shear modulus
d=distance from free surface
b=Burgers vector
ν=Poisson's ratio
Referring to
Experimentally, it has been shown that for the case of germanium on silicon (4% mismatch) dislocations within approximately 300 nm of a SiO2 sidewall are trapped. This is understood to be due to the influence of the image force. The angle between these dislocations and the sidewall appears to range between approximately 45-55°.
The relevant material constants for Ge are:
G=4.1e11 dyne/cm2
ν=0.26; and
b=3.99 Å
Based on the above formula and the experimental observation that for d≦300 nm dislocations in Ge on Si are bent toward an SiO2 sidewall, the force necessary to bend a dislocation in a cubic semiconductor crystal toward a free surface is approximately 2.3 dyne/cm. Thus, distance from free surface d for other materials can be estimated with certain degree of accuracy based on their known values for G, ν, and b. For example, by these calculations:
For GaAs d=258 nm
For InP d=205 nm
For AlSb d=210 nm
For InSb d=164 nm
Referring to
Further, as shown in
The following summarizes mechanisms for trapping dislocations in different kind of diamond-cubic or zincblende semiconductor heterostructures:
1. Low mismatch, low image force
2. Low mismatch, high image force
3. High mismatch, high image force
4. High mismatch, low image force
Hexagonal semiconductors, such as the III-nitride (III-N) materials, are of great interest for high-power high-speed electronics and light-emitting applications. For epitaxy of hexagonal semiconductors such as III-nitrides on Si, the (111) surface of Si is commonly preferred over the (100). This is because the (111) surface of Si is hexagonal (even though Si is a cubic crystal). This makes a better template for hexagonal crystal growth than the cubic (100) face. However, as mentioned above, epitaxial necking approach discussed above is less effective in these applications, because the threading dislocations in the hexagonal semiconductors disposed over the lattice-mismatched Si (111) substrates may not be effectively confined by the vertical sidewalls because the threading dislocations in such materials typically have a different orientation relative to the substrate, compared to the more commonly used cubic semiconductors, such as Si, Ge, and GaAs. For example, as described above in connection with
In other embodiments, the surface of the underlying substrate itself exposed in the opening is configured to enable confinement of the threading dislocations. Referring to
In many of the embodiments described below, a substrate 510 includes, or consists essentially of, silicon. The regrowth layer includes, or consists essentially of, a semiconductor material that is one of a group II, a group III, a group IV, a group V, and/or a group VI elements, and/or combinations thereof, for example, selected from the group consisting of germanium, silicon germanium, gallium arsenide, aluminum antimonide, indium aluminum antimonide, indium antimonide, indium arsenide, indium phosphide and gallium nitride. A dislocation-blocking mask 520 having an opening therein is disposed over the substrate. The dislocation-blocking mask may include a dielectric material, such as, for example, silicon dioxide or silicon nitride. At least a portion of the sidewall meets the surface of the substrate at an orientation angle α to a selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material. A regrowth layer 540 that includes a second semiconductor material is deposited in the opening. In various embodiments, the selected crystallographic direction of the first semiconductor material is aligned with direction of propagation of threading dislocations in the regrowth layer. In various embodiments, the orientation angle ranges from about 30 to about 60 degrees, for example, is about 45 degrees. As mentioned above, in many embodiments of the invention, blocking of the dislocations is promoted by geometry and orientation of the mask discussed above and/or the ‘image force.’
Referring to
Referring to
Referring to
Referring to
Referring to
Further, referring to
Furthermore, still referring to
Besides the conventional planar MOSFETs, the dislocation-blocking technique of the invention can also be used to fabricate non-planar FETs. As mentioned above, blocking of the threading dislocations and other defects is promoted by geometry and orientation of the mask and/or the image force. In many embodiments, the image force alone is sufficient to cause the upper region of the regrowth or overgrown material to be substantially exhausted of threading dislocations and other dislocation defects.
Besides FET devices, the dislocation-blocking techniques of the invention can also be used to fabricate other types of devices, such as optical devices. Referring to
In various embodiments described above, the dislocation-blocking is performed in a vertical direction.
Conventional Ge/III-V necking forms crystal material in the vertical direction. Therefore, when building planar MOS or finFET type devices on that crystal, the device is typically a bulk-type or body-tied, not an “on-insulator” structure. Bulk-type of Ge or GaAs FET may exhibit large junction leakage and poor short-channel effect control. One solution is to build the device vertically instead of parallel to horizontal surface.
The dielectric layer 1404 may be formed over the substrate 310. The dielectric layer 1404 may include or consist essentially of a dielectric material, such as silicon nitride or silicon dioxide (SiO2). The dielectric layer 1404 may be formed by any suitable technique, e.g., thermal oxidation or plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). In some embodiments, the height h1 of the dielectric layer 1404 may be in the range of, e.g., 25-1000 nm. In a preferred embodiment, the height h1 is approximately 600 nm.
An opening or trench 1406 may be formed in the dielectric layer 1404, exposing a portion 1408 of the surface of the substrate 310. More than one opening 1406 may be formed, and each opening 1406 may have a height equal to the height of the dielectric layer, e.g., height h1, and a width w1. The opening(s) 1406 may be created by forming a mask, such as a photoresist mask, over the substrate 310 and the dielectric layer 1404. The mask may be patterned to expose a portion of the dielectric layer 1404. The exposed portion of the dielectric layer 1404 may be removed by, for example, reactive ion etching (RIE) to define the opening 1406. The opening 1406 may be defined by at least one sidewall 1407. In one embodiment, the opening 1406 is formed within the substrate 310, and the dielectric sidewall 1407 is formed within the opening 1406.
The opening 1406 may be substantially rectangular in terms of cross-sectional profile, a top view, or both. With respect to a top view, the width w1 may be smaller than the length l1 (not shown) of the opening. For example, the width w1 of the opening 1406 may be less than about 500 nm, e.g., about 10-500 nm, and the length l1 of the opening 1406 may exceed w1. The ratio of the height h1 of the opening to the width w1 of the opening 1407 may be ≧0.5, e.g., ≧1. The opening sidewall 1407 may not be strictly vertical.
Referring to
In one embodiment, and with reference also to
The recess 1410 may effectively increase the height h of the opening 1406. The surfaces 1412 along the interface 1504 may define an angle 1501 with the horizontal of approximately 57 degrees. The depth d may thus be equal to tan(57°)×w1/2, and the effective height may be equal to h1+tan(57°)×w1/2. The height h1 may be effectively increased regardless of the material to be grown in the opening 1406. In one embodiment, the recess 1410 allows a reduction in the height h1 because the effective increase of h1 may cause any dislocation defects to terminate at a lower height above the substrate 310.
In one embodiment, the second crystalline semiconductor material 1500 does not extend above the height h of the dielectric layer 1404. In an alternative embodiment, the second crystalline semiconductor material 1500 extends above the height h of the dielectric layer 1404, and may coalesce with the second crystalline semiconductor material grown in a neighboring opening 1406 to form a single layer of the second crystalline semiconductor material 1500 above the dielectric layer 1404.
In one embodiment, a buffer layer 1503, comprising a third crystalline semiconductor material, is formed between the second crystalline semiconductor material 1500 and the substrate 310. The buffer layer may be formed on the surface 1412 of the substrate 310, and extend approximately up to the dielectric layer 1404. In another embodiment, the buffer layer 1503 is confined to the recess 1410. The boundary between the second 1500 and third 1503 crystalline semiconductor materials may be proximate the boundary defined by the interface between the exposed portion of the substrate 310 and the dielectric sidewall 1407. The buffer layer 1503 may be used to facilitate the formation of the second crystalline semiconductor material 1500 if there is a large difference between the lattice constants of the second crystalline semiconductor material 1500 and of the substrate 310. For example, the substrate 310 may include Si and the second crystalline semiconductor material 1500 may include InP, so that the two materials differ in lattice constants by approximately eight percent. In this example, GaAs may be used as the buffer layer, because its lattice constant differs from that of both Si and InP by approximately four percent. In another embodiment, Ge or another material having a lattice mismatch to the first and/or second crystalline semiconductor materials of less than eight percent may be used as a buffer layer.
In one embodiment, the buffer layer 1503 may include a constant concentration of the third crystalline semiconductor material, or the concentration may vary such that the lattice constant of the buffer layer 1503 is closer to that of the substrate 310 at the bottom of the buffer layer and closer to that of the second crystalline semiconductor material 1500 near the top of the buffer layer. In another embodiment, multiple buffer layers may be used. The use of one or more buffer layers may allow the formation of one or more heteroepitaxial material layers with large lattice-constant mismatches, while reducing the height h of the dielectric layer 1404 and/or depth d of the recess 1410. The heteroepitaxial material layers may be formed inside the openings 1406 or above the dielectric layer 1404.
The wafer bonding and flipping process may present advantages during the formation of the second crystalline semiconductor material 1500, because any layer or layers that include the second crystalline semiconductor material 1500 may ultimately be rotated 180 degrees. For example, with reference to
Similarly, doping types in the layer or layers comprising the second crystalline semiconductor material 1500 may be chosen to take advantage of the bonding and flipping process. For example, later processing steps may raise the temperature of the device structure 1400 sufficiently to cause the material of substrate 310, e.g., Si, to diffuse into a first deposited layer or region in the second crystalline semiconductor material 1500. Because the material of substrate 310 may be a n-type dopant in III-V materials such as GaAs and InP, atoms of that material that diffuse into a first deposited p-type doped III-V layer may deleteriously compensate the p-type dopants in that layer. Depositing n-type-doped III-V material on the substrate 310 first, however, may insulate other p-type doped III-V layers against diffusion from the substrate 310.
A photonic device 1510, such as a light-emitting diode or a photovoltaic device, formed in accordance with the method described in
Other embodiments incorporating the concepts disclosed herein may be used without departing from the spirit of the essential characteristics of the invention or the scope thereof. The foregoing embodiments are therefore to be considered in all respects as only illustrative rather than restrictive of the invention described herein. Therefore, it is intended that the scope of the invention be only limited by the following claims.
This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/104,924, filed Dec. 12, 2013, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/903,762, filed May 28, 2013, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/681,214, filed Nov. 19, 2012, which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/845,593, filed Jul. 28, 2010, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/180,254, filed Jul. 25, 2008, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/436,198, filed May 17, 2006, which claims priority to and benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/681,940 filed May 17, 2005. The entire disclosures of these applications are incorporated herein by reference. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/845,593, filed Jul. 28, 2010, is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/436,062, filed May 17, 2006. The entire disclosures of these applications are incorporated herein by reference.
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