This invention relates generally to lattice-mismatched semiconductor heterostructures and, specifically, to methods and materials for formation of integrated structures including alternative active-area materials on insulators.
The increasing operating speeds and computing power of microelectronic devices have recently given rise to the need for an increase in the complexity and functionality of the semiconductor structures from which these devices are fabricated. Hetero-integration of dissimilar semiconductor materials, for example, III-V materials, such as gallium arsenide, gallium nitride, indium aluminum arsenide, and/or germanium with silicon, silicon-on-insulator, or silicon-germanium substrates, is an attractive path for increasing the functionality and performance of the CMOS platform. Specifically, as geometric scaling of Si-based MOSFET technology becomes more challenging, the heterointegration of alternative area materials becomes an attractive option for increasing the innate carrier mobility of MOSFET channels. For many applications, it is desirable to incorporate alternative active-area materials having a low density of dislocation defects onto an insulator platform. As used herein, the term “alternative materials” refers to either a non-silicon semiconductor, or silicon with a different surface or rotational orientation compared to the underlying substrate. Such areas are suitable for use as active areas for MOSFETs or other electronic or opto-electronic devices.
Heterointegration of alternative materials has thus far been typically limited to the addition of SiGe alloys of small Ge content for use as source-drain contact materials or heterojunction bipolar transistor base layers. Since such layers are only slightly lattice-mismatched to Si, and since most modern Si MOSFET processes are compatible with these dilute SiGe alloys, few disruptions in the Si MOSFET integration sequence have been necessary. The drive for increased carrier mobility—and concomitant device drive current—will soon, however, necessitate the use of other, more highly lattice-mismatched materials for historically Si-based devices, requiring more disruptive changes to the traditional device integration flow.
In particular, heteroepitaxial growth can be used to fabricate many modern semiconductor devices where lattice-matched substrates are not commercially available or to potentially achieve monolithic integration with silicon microelectronics. Performance and, ultimately, the utility of devices fabricated using a combination of dissimilar semiconductor materials, however, depends on the quality of the resulting structure. Specifically, a low level of dislocation defects is important in a wide variety of semiconductor devices and processes, because dislocation defects partition an otherwise monolithic crystal structure and introduce unwanted and abrupt changes in electrical and optical properties. These, in turn, result in poor material quality and limited performance. In addition, the threading dislocation segments can degrade physical properties of the device material and can lead to a premature device failure.
As mentioned above, dislocation defects typically arise in efforts to epitaxially grow one kind of crystalline material on a substrate of a different kind of material—often referred to as a “heterostructure”—due to different crystalline lattice sizes of the two materials. This lattice mismatch between the starting substrate and subsequent layer(s) creates stress during material deposition that generates dislocation defects in the semiconductor structure. The stress field associated with misfit dislocations under certain conditions may cause formation of linear agglomerations of threading dislocations, termed a “dislocation pile-up.” This is generally defined as an area comprising at least three threading dislocations, with a threading dislocation density greater than 5×106 cm−2, and with threading dislocations substantially aligned along a slip direction such that the linear density of dislocations within the pile-up and along a slip direction is greater than 2000/cm. For example, the slip directions in SiGe materials are in-plane <110> directions. A high localized threading dislocation density present in dislocation pile-ups has a potentially devastating impact on the yield of devices formed in these regions and may render these devices unusable. Inhibiting the formation of dislocation pile-ups is, therefore, desirable.
To minimize formation of dislocations and associated performance issues, as mentioned above, many semiconductor heterostructure devices known in the art have been limited to semiconductor layers that have very closely—e.g. within 0.1%—lattice-matched crystal structures. In such devices a thin layer is epitaxially grown on a mildly lattice-mismatched substrate. As long as the thickness of the epitaxial layer is kept below a critical thickness for defect formation, the substrate acts as a template for growth of the epitaxial layer, which elastically conforms to the substrate template. While lattice-matching and near-matching eliminate dislocations in a number of structures, there are relatively few lattice-matched systems with large energy band offsets, limiting the design options for new devices.
Accordingly, there is considerable interest in heterostructure devices involving greater epitaxial layer thickness and greater lattice misfit than known approaches would allow. One known technique termed “epitaxial necking” was demonstrated in connection with fabricating a Ge-on-Si heterostructure by Langdo et al. in “High Quality Ge on Si by Epitaxial Necking,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 76, No. 25, Apr. 2000. This approach offers process simplicity by utilizing a combination of selective epitaxial growth and defect crystallography to force defects to the sidewall of the opening in the patterning mask, without relying on increased lateral growth rates. This approach, however, generally requires relatively thick semiconductor layers, as well as relatively small lateral dimensions of the openings in the mask in order for the dislocations to terminate at its sidewalls, resulting in defect-free regions.
Several methods to fabricate non-Si semiconductors on insulator substrates have been previously reported, whereby transfer of SiGe material onto insulator substrate was achieved through bonding and splitting induced by hydrogen implantation and annealing. Generally, in these approaches, a relatively thick SiGe layer is deposited on a silicon substrate, which includes a graded SiGe buffer layer and a relaxed SiGe layer having a constant germanium concentration. Following surface planarization, hydrogen is implanted into the SiGe layer to facilitate wafer splitting. The Si/SiGe wafer is then bonded to an oxidized silicon substrate. The SiGe-on-oxide layers are separated from the rest of the couplet by thermal annealing, wherein splitting occurs along hydrogen-implantation-induced microcracks, which parallel the bonding interface.
A technique to form a SiGe-free strained silicon-on-insulator substrates has been also reported by T. A. Langdo and others in “Preparation of Novel SiGe-Free Strained Si on Insulator Substrates,” published in 2002 IEEE International SOI Conference Proceedings (Oct. 2002). This technique is similar to approaches described above, except that a thin layer of epitaxial silicon is deposited on the SiGe layer before wafer bonding. After bonding and wafer splitting, the SiGe layer is removed by oxidation and HF etching, enabling the formation of very thin and uniform strained silicon-on-oxide surface.
Thus, there is a need in the art for versatile and efficient methods of fabricating semiconductor heterostructures, including alternative active-area materials disposed over a common insulator platform, that would address formation of interface defects in a variety of lattice-mismatched materials systems. There is also a need in the art for semiconductor devices utilizing a combination of integrated lattice-mismatched materials with reduced levels of substrate interface defects for improved functionality and performance.
Heterointegration of alternative materials is desirable for various electronic and optoelectronic applications. For example, the heterointegration of III-V, II-VI materials and/or Ge with Si is an attractive path for increasing the functionality and performance of the CMOS platform. An economical solution to heterointegration could enable new fields and applications, such as replacing Si in CMOS transistors, particularly for critical-path logic devices. Heterointegration could significantly lower (a) channel resistance, due to the ultra-high mobility and saturation velocity afforded by various non-Si semiconductors, and (b) source/drain resistance, due both to high mobility and to the narrower bandgap of many non-Si semiconductors, with the narrower bandgap leading to a lower electrical resistance between the metal (or metal-alloy) contact and the semiconductor. Another new application could be the combination of Si CMOS logic with ultra-high speed RF devices, such as InP- or GaAs-based high electron-mobility transistor (HEMT) or heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) devices similar to those utilized for high-frequency applications today. Yet another application may be the combination of Si CMOS logic with opto-electronic devices, since many non-Si semiconductors have light emission and detection performance superior to Si.
Selective epitaxy is an attractive path for hetero-materials integration for several reasons. First, it facilitates adding the non-Si semiconductor material only where it is needed, and so is only marginally disruptive to a Si CMOS process performed on the same wafer. Also, selective epitaxy may allow multiple new materials to be combined on a common wafer, e.g., Ge for PMOS and InGaAs for NMOS. Furthermore, it is likely to be more economical than key alternative paths, e.g., layer transfer of global hetero-epitaxial films, especially for integrating materials with large lattice mismatch. In order to achieve integration of lattice-mismatched materials on an insulator, selective epitaxy can be supplemented by techniques employing ion implantation and bonding.
Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide on-insulator semiconductor heterostructures with significantly minimized dislocation defects, and methods for their fabrication employing selective epitaxy and bonding.
As mentioned above, dislocation defects typically arise during epitaxial growth of one kind of crystal material on a substrate of a different kind of material due to differences in crystalline lattice sizes. This lattice mismatch between the starting substrate and subsequent layer(s) creates stress during material deposition that generates dislocation defects in the semiconductor structure. One known technique to control threading dislocation densities (“TDD”) in highly-mismatched epitaxial layers involves substrate patterning, which exploits the fact that the threading dislocations are constrained by geometry (i.e. that a dislocation cannot end in a crystal). If the free edge is brought closer to another free edge by patterning the substrate into growth areas, then it is possible to generally confine threading dislocations to a portion of the epitaxial layer proximate to its interface with the starting substrate, thereby minimizing the TDD in the remainder of the epitaxial layer.
Generally, in its various embodiments, the invention disclosed herein focuses on bonding patterned substrates with alternative active-area materials epitaxially formed thereon to a rigid platform, such as, for example, an insulator disposed over a handle wafer, and then removing the highly-defective interface areas along with the underlying substrates to produce alternative active-area regions disposed over the insulator and substantially exhausted of misfit and threading dislocations. As a result, the invention contemplates fabrication of semiconductor devices based on monolithic lattice-mismatched heterostructures on insulators long sought in the art but heretofore impractical due to dislocation defects.
In general, in one aspect, the invention disclosed herein features methods for forming a structure, including providing a first substrate including, or consisting essentially of, a first crystalline semiconductor material. A first insulator layer is formed over the first substrate, and at least one opening is defined in the first insulator layer extending to the first substrate. The opening is filled, at least partially, with an active-area material by, for example, selective epitaxy to form an active-area region surrounded by an insulator region. The method further includes forming a cleave area at a predetermined distance in relation to the interface between the first substrate and the active-area regions by, for example, implanting gaseous material into the active-area and the insulator regions. The active-area and the insulator regions are then bonded to a rigid platform, for example, a structure including a second insulator layer disposed over a second substrate including, or consisting essentially of, a second crystalline semiconductor material. The method further includes causing the bonded structure to split at least along the cleave area into a first portion and a second portion, the second portion including at least a portion of the active-area region bonded to the second insulator layer.
In various embodiments, the split within the bonded structure is caused by thermal annealing, e.g. at a temperature ranging from about 350° C. to 700° C. Optionally, a surface of the active-area region is planarized prior to implantation and bonding such that its surface is substantially coplanar with a surface of the insulator region. Also, following the split, an exposed surface of the second portion can be planarized to remove cleave-induced surface roughness and, if desired, reduce a thickness of the active-area region in the second portion to a desired value. In some embodiments, the second portion is annealed after the split at a temperature ranging from about 600° C. to about 900° C.
In some embodiments, the cleave area at least partially lies within the active-area and the insulator regions substantially parallel to the interface between the first substrate and the active-area region at a first predetermined distance therefrom, such that, following the split, the first portion includes portions of the active-area and the insulator regions disposed over the first substrate. In some implementations of these embodiments, a strained region is formed within the active-area region, such that the cleave area at least partially includes the strained region. In other embodiments, the cleave area at least partially lies within the first substrate substantially parallel to the interface between the first substrate and the active-area region at a second predetermined distance therefrom, such that, after causing the bonded structure to split into the first portion and the second portion, the second portion of the bonded structure includes a portion of the first substrate. Optionally, the remaining first crystalline semiconductor material is removed from the active-area and the insulator regions by post-annealing planarization and/or etching. In yet another embodiment of this aspect of the invention, the active-area material is epitaxially grown over the first substrate in a bottom portion of the opening, and then a third insulator layer is deposited in a top portion of the opening over the active-area material. The surface of the third insulator layer can be planarized prior to implantation and bonding such that the surface is substantially coplanar with a surface of the insulator region. In still other embodiments, the cleave area substantially coincides with or is proximate to the interface between the active-area material and the first substrate, such that the cleave area at least partially includes the interface between the first substrate and the active-area region.
Optionally, a strained semiconductor layer is deposited over the surface of the active-area region. Also, in some embodiments, prior to implantation and bonding, a dielectric material is deposited over the active-area material in the opening to form a buffer region above the active-area region. A surface of the buffer region extends at least to a surface of the first insulator layer. The surface of the buffer region is or can be made co-planar with the surface of the first insulator layer.
In this and other aspects of the invention, the rigid platform may include one or more layers of glass, quartz, plastic, polymer, or other dielectric material, either self-supporting or disposed over another layer. For example, the rigid platform can be a substrate including a second insulator layer disposed over a second substrate including, or consisting essentially of, a second crystalline semiconductor material. The first semiconductor and/or second semiconductor materials include, or consist essentially of, single-crystal silicon, germanium, a silicon-germanium alloy, and/or a III-V material. The first and second substrates may be, for example, a bulk silicon wafer, a bulk germanium wafer, a bulk III-V wafer such as gallium arsenide or indium phosphide, a semiconductor-on-insulator (SOI) substrate, or a strained semiconductor-on-insulator (SSOI) substrate. Also, the first and second insulator layers may include, or consist essentially of, silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, silicon nitride, silicon carbide, and/or diamond, and may have a thickness of, e.g., 50-1000 nanometers. The third insulator layer can include, or consist essentially of, either the same material as the first and second insulator layers, or include a different material, such as, for example, a low-K dielectric material. Generally, the active-area material is a crystalline semiconductor material, such as a group IV element or compound, a III-V compound, and/or a II-VI compound. The group IV element may be carbon, germanium, and/or silicon, e.g., (110) silicon. The group IV compound may include silicon, germanium, tin, and/or carbon, e.g., silicon germanium (SiGe). The III-V compound may be, e.g., gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium arsenide (InAs), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium phosphide (InP), or indium antimonide (InSb), gallium nitride (GaN), and/or indium nitride (InN). The II-VI compound may be, e.g., zinc telluride (ZnTe), cadmium selenide (CdSe), cadmium telluride (CdTe), zinc sulfide (ZnS), and/or zinc selenide (ZnSe). Also, the first crystalline semiconductor material may have a first crystalline orientation and the active-area material comprises a third crystalline semiconductor material having a second crystalline orientation different from the first crystalline orientation. For example, the first crystalline semiconductor material may be (100) silicon and the active-area material may be (110) silicon. The gaseous material may include ions of hydrogen, helium, argon, krypton, and/or neon.
In general, in another aspect, the invention relates to a semiconductor structure that includes a substrate and, thereover, a patterned insulator layer defining at least one opening. The substrate can be a rigid platform that includes one or more layers of glass, quartz, plastic, polymer, or other dielectric material, either self-supporting or disposed over another layer, for example, including, or consisting essentially of, a crystalline semiconductor material. The structure further includes an active-area region formed in the opening and bonded to the substrate. The active-area region includes, or consists essentially of, an active-area material substantially exhausted of misfit and threading dislocations.
Various embodiments of this and other aspects of the invention include one or more of the following features. The substrate may include a base insulator layer disposed over the crystalline semiconductor material underneath the patterned insulator layer. The active-area region may have a buffer region that includes, or consists essentially of, a dielectric material and is disposed in the opening between the substrate and the active-area material. The active-area region may also have a strained semiconductor layer disposed over the active-area material. A dislocation pile-up density in the active-area material does not exceed about 1/cm, for example, is less than about 0.01/cm. Also, a threading dislocation density in the active-area material does not exceed about 103 cm−2, for example, is less than about 102 cm−2.
In general, in other aspects, one or more electronic devices, such as, for example, a field-effect transistor (FET), such as a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (CMOSFET) or a metal-semiconductor FET (MESFET), or a non-FET device such as a diode, are defined including at least a portion of one or more of the active-area regions.
In the drawings, like reference characters generally refer to the same parts throughout the different views. Also, the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead generally being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. In the following description, various embodiments of the present invention are described with reference to the following drawings, in which
In accordance with its various embodiments, the invention disclosed herein contemplates fabrication of monolithic lattice-mismatched semiconductor heterostructures disposed over an insulator platform with limited-area regions substantially exhausted of misfit and threading dislocations, as well as fabrication of semiconductor devices based on such lattice-mismatched heterostructures.
Referring to
A mask (not shown), such as a photoresist mask, is formed over the insulator layer 110. The mask is patterned to expose at least a portion of the insulator layer. The exposed portion of the insulator layer is removed by, e.g., reactive ion etching (RIE), to define openings 120A and 120B and expose areas 130A and 130B of a top surface of the substrate 100, as shown in
Referring to
In many embodiments of the invention, the active-area regions 140A and 140B are formed selectively, i.e., the materials are deposited over the areas 130A, 130B of the crystalline semiconductor material of substrate 100 exposed by the openings, but are not substantially deposited or formed on the insulator layer 110. The active-area materials are crystalline semiconductor material, such as a group IV element or compound, a III-V compound, or a II-VI compound. The group IV element may be carbon, germanium, or silicon, e.g., (110) silicon. The group IV compound may include silicon, germanium, tin, or carbon, e.g., SiGe. The III-V compound may be, e.g., GaAs, InAs, InGaAs, InP, InSb, GaN, InN, or mixtures thereof. The II-VI compound may be, e.g., ZnTe, CdSe, CdTe, ZnS, and/or ZnSe. The active-area regions 140A and 140B may include, or consist essentially of, the same or different materials. Also, in some embodiments, one or more of the active-area regions may include, or consist essentially of, silicon. The lattice mismatch (or difference in equilibrium lattice constants) between the active-area materials and the crystalline semiconductor material of substrate 100 may, in some embodiments, exceed approximately 4%. In a particular embodiment, the lattice mismatch between the active-area materials and the crystalline semiconductor material of substrate is greater than approximately 8%. The density of misfit dislocations, which typically form as the active-area material relaxes to its equilibrium lattice constant and are present near the interface between the active-area material and the substrate, can exceed 1×106 cm−2, even exceeding 2×106 cm−2 or 4×106 cm−2 in some embodiments. These misfit dislocation defects are linear defects generally lying parallel to the interface and generally confined to a thin region near the interface.
Referring to
Referring now to
Referring to
In some embodiments, a top insulator layer (not shown) may be formed over the top surfaces 160, 170 of the active-area and insulator regions, resulting in insulator-on-insulator bonding. This top insulator layer may include, or consist essentially of, silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, silicon nitride, silicon carbide, or diamond, and may have a thickness of, e.g., 50-1000 nm. In certain implementations of these embodiments, the top insulator layer is bonded directly to the substrate 260, without providing the insulator layer 250 therebetween.
In various embodiments, the structure 270 is then subjected to thermal annealing at a temperature ranging from about 350° C. to 700° C. for a period of time from about five minutes to about four hours. Referring to
As mentioned above, in various embodiments of the invention, the alternative active-area regions 230A and 230B are substantially exhausted of misfit and threading dislocations. Defect densities can be measured using a standard chromic acid-based Schimmel etch as outlined, for example, in Journal of the Electrochemical Society 126:479 (1979), and an optical microscope operated in differential interference contrast (Nomarski) mode. TDDs can be calculated by counting the number of etch pits per unit area located away from dislocation pile-ups, yielding units of inverse area (cm−2). Dislocation pile-up densities can be calculated by measuring the total length of dislocation pile-ups per unit area, yielding units of inverse length (cm−1). Defect densities may also preferably be confirmed by the use of a complementary characterization technique such as plan-view transmission electron microscopy. In various embodiments, a dislocation pile-up density in these active-area regions does not exceed about 20/cm, for example, is less than about 5/cm, preferably ranges from 0 to about 1/cm, and, more preferably, is less than about 0.01/cm. Also, TDD in these regions is less than about 105 cm−2, for example, less than about 103 cm−2, and, preferably, ranges between 0 and about 102 cm−2.
In some embodiments, the structure 270 is further annealed at a temperature ranging from 600-900° C., e.g., at a temperature greater than about 800° C., to strengthen the bond between the surfaces 160, 170 and the surface 240.
Referring now to
Referring to
Referring now to
Following the split, exposed surfaces of the active-area regions can be planarized or smoothed, e.g. using CMP, to remove cleave-induced surface roughness and, if desired, reduce a thickness of the active-area regions to a desired value. As a result, alternative active-area regions disposed over the insulator and substantially exhausted of misfit and threading dislocations are obtained. Notably, in these embodiments, employing the interface area between the substrate and the active-area regions or the deliberately-introduced strained layer as a target height for the cleave area improves control over penetration of the implanted ions and associated thickness of the active-area regions. Also, because of the high concentration of dislocation defects in the interface area and the strained layer, a lesser concentration of implanted ions and/or a more efficient (e.g., lower) thermal budget is needed to effect cleave-induced split within the bonded structure. In addition, any portion of strained layers 435A, 435B remaining after splitting and planarization may be used in subsequently formed devices, as, for example, transistor channel regions with enhanced mobility.
Referring to
Still referring to
In many applications, various electronic devices can be formed in the on-insulator portions of the active-area regions. Referring to
Additional semiconductor layers may be formed above the active areas on the insulator. For example, referring to
Further processing steps may include the formation of gate dielectric layers 635A, 635B, the deposition of gate electrode materials 625A, 625B, and the definition of gates by, e.g., dry etching, such that spacers 642A, 642B are formed adjacent to the gate dielectric and gate electrode layers. The source and drain regions may be defined by an ion implantation step. Interlayer dielectrics may be formed over gate, source, and drain, and contact holes may be defined. Metal layers may be deposited in the contact holes and over the structure. In some embodiments, the interlayer dielectrics, for example, including or consisting essentially of, silicon nitride, are used to induce strain on at least one of channel regions 622A, 622B.
Suitable methods for fabrication of CMOS devices, e.g. those having different n- and p-active areas, are described in co-pending provisional application Ser. No. 60/702,363, incorporated herein by reference. The resulting transistors may be, for example, a field-effect transistor (FET), such as a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (CMOSFET) or a metal-semiconductor FET (MESFET). In an alternative embodiment, the device is a non-FET device such as a diode. The diode device could be a light detecting device (photodiode), or a light emitting device (either a light-emitting diode, or a laser diode). In an alternative application, the device is a bipolar junction transistor.
Other embodiments incorporating the concepts disclosed herein may be used without departing from the spirit of the essential characteristics of the invention or the scope thereof. The foregoing embodiments are therefore to be considered in all respects as only illustrative rather than restrictive of the invention described herein. Therefore, it is intended that the scope of the invention be only limited by the following claims.
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