Patent Grant
12142528
Electronic circuits are commonly fabricated on a wafer of semiconductor material, such as silicon. A wafer with such electronic circuits is typically cut into numerous dies, with each die being referred to as an integrated circuit (IC). Each die is housed in an IC case and is commonly referred to as a microchip, “chip,” of IC chip. According to Moore's law (first proposed by Gordon Moore), the number of transistors that can be defined on an IC die will double approximately every two years. With advances in semiconductor fabrication processes, this law has held true for much of the past fifty years. However, in recent years, the end of Moore's law has been prognosticated as we are reaching the maximum number of transistors that can possibly be defined on a semiconductor substrate. Hence, there is a need in the art for other advances that would allow more transistors to be defined in an IC chip.
Some embodiments of the invention provide a three-dimensional (3D) circuit that is formed by stacking two or more integrated circuit (IC) dies to at least partially overlap and to share one or more interconnect layers that distribute power, clock and/or data-bus signals. The shared interconnect layers include interconnect segments (also referred to as interconnect lines or wires) that carry power, clock and/or data-bus signals. In some embodiments, the shared interconnect layers are higher level interconnect layers (e.g., the top interconnect layer of each IC die).
In some embodiments, the stacked IC dies of the 3D circuit include first and second IC dies. The first die includes a first semiconductor substrate and a first set of interconnect layers defined above the first semiconductor substrate. Similarly, the second IC die includes a second semiconductor substrate and a second set of interconnect layers defined above the second semiconductor substrate. As further described below, the first and second dies in some embodiments are placed in a face-to-face arrangement (e.g., a vertically stacked arrangement) that has the first and second set of interconnect layers facing each other. In some embodiments, a subset of one or more interconnect layers of the second set interconnect layers of the second die has interconnect wiring that carries power, clock and/or data-bus signals that are supplied to the first IC die. This subset is referred to below as the shared interconnect-layer subset.
In some embodiments, numerous electronic components (e.g., active components, like transistors and diodes, or passive components, like resistors and capacitors) are defined on the first semiconductor substrate, and these electronic components are connected to each other through interconnect wiring on the first set of interconnect layers to form numerous microcircuits (e.g., Boolean gates) and/or larger circuits (e.g., functional blocks). In some of these embodiments, the power, clock and/or data-bus signals from the shared interconnect-layer subset of the second die are supplied to several electronic components, microcircuits, and larger circuits of the first die. Also, in some of these embodiments, the power, clock and/or data-bus signals from the shared interconnect-layer subset are also supplied to electronic components, microcircuits, and larger circuits that are formed on the second substrate of the second die.
In some embodiments, the face-to-face arranged first and second dies have their top interconnect layers bonded to each other through a direct bonding process that establishes direct-contact metal-to-metal bonding, oxide bonding, or fusion bonding between these two sets of interconnect layers. An example of such bonding is copper-to-copper (Cu—Cu) metallic bonding between two copper conductors in direct contact. In some embodiments, the direct bonding is provided by a hybrid bonding technique such as DBI® (direct bond interconnect) technology, and other metal bonding techniques (such as those offered by Invensas Bonding Technologies, Inc., an Xperi Corporation company, San Jose, CA).
The direct bonding techniques of some embodiments allow a large number of direct connections (e.g., more than 1,000 connections/mm2, 10,000 connections/mm2, 100,000 connections/mm2, 1,000,000 connections/mm2 or less, etc.) to be established between the top two interconnect layers of the first and second dies, in order to allow power, clock and/or data-bus signals to traverse between the first and second IC dies. These connections traverse the bonding layer between the two face-to-face mounted dies. When these connections provide signals from the top interconnect layer of the second die to the top interconnect layer of the first die, the first die in some embodiments uses other IC structures (e.g., vias) to carry these signals from its top interconnect layer to other layers and/or substrate of the first die.
These connections between the top interconnect layers of the first and second IC dies are very short in length, which, as further described below, allows the signals on these lines to reach their destinations quickly while experiencing minimal capacitive load from other nearby wiring. In some embodiments, the pitch between two neighboring direct-bonded connections (i.e., the distance between the centers of the two neighboring connections) that connect the top interconnect layers of the first and second dies can be extremely small, e.g., the pitch for two neighboring connections can be between 0.2 μm to 15 μm. This close proximity allows for the large number and high density of such connections between the top interconnect layers of the first and second dies. Moreover, the close proximity of these connections does not introduce much capacitive load between two neighboring z-axis connections because of their short length and small interconnect pad size.
In some embodiments, the top interconnect layers of the first and second dies have preferred wiring directions that are orthogonal to each other. Specifically, the top interconnect layer of the first die has a first preferred routing direction, while the top interconnect layer of the second die has a second preferred routing direction. In some embodiments, the first and second preferred routing directions are orthogonal to each other, e.g., the top layer of one die has a horizontal preferred routing direction while the top layer of the other die has a vertical preferred routing direction. In other embodiments, the top layer of the first die has the same preferred routing direction as the top layer of the second die, but one of the two dies is rotated by 90 degrees before bonding the top two layers together through a direct bonding technique.
Having the wiring direction of the top interconnect layers of the first and second dies be orthogonal to each other has several advantages. It provides better signal routing between the IC dies and avoids capacitive coupling between long parallel segments on adjacent interconnect layers of the two dies. Also, it allows the top interconnect layers of the first and second dies to conjunctively define a power distribution network (referred to as power mesh below) or a clock distribution network (referred to below as clock tree) that requires orthogonal wire segments in two different interconnect layers.
Orthogonal wiring directions on the top layers of the first and second dies also increases the overlap between the wiring on these layers, which increases the number of candidate locations for bonding different pairs of wires on the top interconnect layers of the different dies to provide power signals and/or clock signals from one die to another die. For instance, in some embodiments, the first die has one set of alternating power and ground lines that traverses along one direction (e.g., the horizontal direction), while the second die has another set of alternating power and ground lines that traverses along another direction (e.g., the vertical direction). The power/ground lines on one die's interconnect layer can be directly bonded to corresponding power/ground lines on the other die's interconnect layer at each or some of the overlaps between corresponding pair of power lines.
This direct bonding creates a very robust power mesh for the first and second dies without using two different interconnect layers for each of these two dies. In other words, defining a power mesh by connecting orthogonal top interconnect layers of the first and second dies through a direct bonding scheme eliminates one or more of power layers in each die in some embodiments. Similarly, defining a clock tree by connecting orthogonal top interconnect layers of the first and second dies through a direct bonding scheme eliminates one or more of clock layers in each die in some embodiments. In other embodiments, the first die does not have a power mesh or clock tree, as it shares the power mesh or clock tree that is defined in the interconnect layer(s) of the second die.
The first and second dies in some embodiments are not face-to-face stacked. For instance, in some embodiments, these two dies are face-to-back stacked (i.e., the set of interconnect layers of one die is mounted next to the backside of the semiconductor substrate of the other die), or back-to-back stacked (i.e., the backside of the semiconductor substrate of one die is mounted next to the backside of the semiconductor substrate of the other die). In other embodiments, a third die is placed between the first and second dies, which are face-to-face stacked, face-to-back stacked (with the third die between the backside of the substrate of one die and the set of interconnect layers of the other die), or back-to-back stacked (with the third die between the backsides of the substrates of the first and second dies). While some embodiments use a direct bonding technique to establish connections between the top interconnect layers of two face-to-face stacked dies, other embodiments use alternative connection schemes (such as through silicon vias, TSVs, through-oxide vias, TOVs, or through-glass vias, TGVs) to establish connections between face-to-back dies and between back-to-back dies.
Stacking IC dies to share power, clock and/or data-bus signals between two dies has several advantages. This stacking reduces the overall number of interconnect layers of the two dies because it allows the two dies to share some of the higher-level interconnect layers in order to distribute power, clock and/or data-bus signals. For example, as described above, each die does not need to devote two interconnect layers to create a power/ground mesh, because this mesh can be formed by direct bonding the power/ground top interconnect layer of one die with the power/ground top interconnect layer of the other die. Reducing the higher-level interconnect layers is beneficial as the wiring on these layers often consume more space due to their thicker, wider and coarser arrangements. In addition, the ability to share the use of these interconnect layers on multiple dies may reduce the congestion and route limitations that may be more constrained on one die than another.
Stacking the IC dies in many cases also allows the wiring for delivering the power, clock and/or data-bus signals to be much shorter, as the stacking provides more candidate locations for shorter connections between power, clock and/or data-bus signal interconnects and the circuit components that are to receive these signals. For instance, instead of routing data-bus signals on the first die about several functional blocks in order to reach a circuit or component within another block from that block's periphery, the data-bus signals can be provided directly to that circuit or component on the first die from data-bus interconnect on a shared interconnect layer of the second die. The data signal can be provided to its destination very quickly (e.g., within 1 or 2 clock cycles) as it does not need to be routed from the destination block's periphery, but rather is provided by a short interconnect from the shared interconnect layer above. Shorter connections for power, clock and/or data-bus signals reduce the capacitive load on the connections that carry these signals, which, in turn, reduces the signal skew on these lines and allows the 3D circuit to use no or less signal isolation schemes.
Stacking the IC dies also allows the dies to share power, clock and/or data-bus circuits. For instance, in some embodiments in which the first die shares power, clock and/or data-bus interconnects of the second die, the first die also relies on power, clock and/or data-bus circuits that are defined on the second die to provide the power, clock and/or data-bus signals. This frees up space on the first die to implement other circuits and functional blocks of the 3D circuit. The resulting savings can be quite significant because power, clock and/or data-bus circuits can often consume a significant portion of available space. For example, chip input/output (I/O) circuits (e.g., SERDES I/O circuits) and memory I/O circuits (e.g., DDR memory I/O circuits) can be larger than many other circuits on an IC.
Pushing off all or some of the power and clock circuits from the first die to the second die also frees up space on the first die because often power and clock circuits need to be isolated from other circuits and/or signals that can affect the operation of the power and clock circuits. Also, having system level circuits on just one die allows for better isolation of such circuits (e.g., better isolation of voltage regulators and/or clock circuits).
In sum, stacking the IC dies optimizes the cost and performance of a chip stack system by combining certain functionalities into common interconnect layers and sharing these functions with multiple die in the stack. The functionalities provided by the higher-level interconnect layers can be shared with multiple dies in the stack. The higher-level interconnect layers require thicker and wider metal and coarser pitch. Removing them allows each chip to be connected with a few inner level interconnect layers with higher density vias to enable higher performance and lower cost. Examples of the high-level interconnect layers include system level circuitry layers, and RDL layers. The system circuits include power circuits, clock circuits, data bus circuits, ESD (electro-static discharge) circuits, test circuits, etc.
The preceding Summary is intended to serve as a brief introduction to some embodiments of the invention. It is not meant to be an introduction or overview of all inventive subject matter disclosed in this document. The Detailed Description that follows and the Drawings that are referred to in the Detailed Description will further describe the embodiments described in the Summary as well as other embodiments. Accordingly, to understand all the embodiments described by this document, a full review of the Summary, Detailed Description, the Drawings and the Claims is needed.
The novel features of the invention are set forth in the appended claims. However, for purposes of explanation, several embodiments of the invention are set forth in the following figures.
In the following detailed description of the invention, numerous details, examples, and embodiments of the invention are set forth and described. However, it will be clear and apparent to one skilled in the art that the invention is not limited to the embodiments set forth and that the invention may be practiced without some of the specific details and examples discussed.
Some embodiments of the invention provide a three-dimensional (3D) circuit that is formed by vertically stacking two or more integrated circuit (IC) dies to at least partially overlap and to share one or more interconnect layers that distribute power, clock and/or data-bus signals. The shared interconnect layers include interconnect segments (also referred to as interconnect lines or wires) that carry power, clock and/or data-bus signals. In some embodiments, the shared interconnect layers are higher level interconnect layers.
In some embodiments, numerous electronic components (e.g., active components, like transistors and diodes, or passive components, like resistors and capacitors) are defined on the first semiconductor substrate 120 and on the second semiconductor substrate 130. The electronic components on the first substrate 120 are connected to each other through interconnect wiring on the first set of interconnect layers 125 to form numerous microcircuits (e.g., Boolean gates) and/or larger circuits (e.g., functional blocks). Similarly, the electronic components on the second substrate 130 are connected to each other through interconnect wiring on the second set of interconnect layers 135 to form additional microcircuits (e.g., Boolean gates) and/or larger circuits (e.g., functional blocks).
In some embodiments, the electronic components on one die's substrate (e.g., the first substrate 120 of the first die 105) are also connected to other electronic components on the same substrate (e.g., substrate 120) through interconnect wiring on the other die's set of interconnect layers (e.g., the second set of interconnect layers 135 of the second die 110) to form additional microcircuits and/or larger circuits.
In some embodiments, power, clock and/or data-bus signals from the shared interconnect-layer subset 140 of the second die 110 are supplied to several electronic components, microcircuits, and larger circuits of the first die 105. Also, in some of these embodiments, the power, clock and/or data-bus signals from the shared interconnect-layer subset 140 are also supplied to electronic components, microcircuits, and larger circuits that are formed on the second substrate of the second die 110.
To form the 3D circuit 100 of
The DBI process is further described in United States Patent 6962835 and U.S. Pat. No. 7,485,968, both of which are incorporated herein by reference. This process is also described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/725,030, which is also incorporated herein by reference. As described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/725,030, the direct bonded connections between two face-to-face mounted IC dies are native interconnects that allow signals to span two different dies with no standard interfaces and no input/output protocols at the cross-die boundaries. In other words, the direct bonded interconnects allow native signals from one die to pass directly to the other die with no modification of the native signal or negligible modification of the native signal, thereby forgoing standard interfacing and consortium-imposed input/output protocols.
In this manner, the direct bonded interconnects allow circuits to be formed across and/or to be accessed through the cross-die boundary of two face-to-face mounted dies. Examples of such circuits are further described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/725,030. The incorporated U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,962,835, 7,485,968, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/725,030 also describe fabrication techniques for manufacturing two face-to-face mounted dies.
As shown in
The direct-bonded connections 150 between the first and second dies are very short in length. For instance, based on current manufacturing technologies, the direct-bonded connections can range from a fraction of a micron to a single-digit or low double-digit microns (e.g., 2-10 microns). As further described below, the short length of these connections allows the signals traversing through these connections to reach their destinations quickly while experiencing no or minimal capacitive load from nearby planar wiring and nearby direct-bonded vertical connections. The planar wiring connections are referred to as x-y wiring or connections, as such wiring stays mostly within a plane define by an x-y axis of the 3D circuit. On the other hand, vertical connections between two dies or between two interconnect layers are referred to as z-axis wiring or connections, as such wiring mostly traverses in the z-axis of the 3D circuit. The use of “vertical” in expressing a z-axis connection should not be confused with horizontal or vertical preferred direction planar wiring that traverse an individual interconnect layer, as further described below.
In some embodiments, the pitch between two neighboring direct-bonded connections 150 can be extremely small, e.g., the pitch for two neighboring connections is between 0.2 μm to 15 μm. This close proximity allows for the large number and high density of such connections between the top interconnect layers 160 and 165 of the first and second dies 105 and 110. Moreover, the close proximity of these connections does not introduce much capacitive load between two neighboring z-axis connections because of their short length and small interconnect pad size. For instance, in some embodiments, the direct bonded connections are less then 1 or 2 min length (e.g., 0.1 to 0.5 min length), and facilitate short z-axis connections (e.g., 1 to 10 min length) between two different locations on the two dies even after accounting for the length of vias on each of the dies. In sum, the direct vertical connections between two dies offer short, fast paths between different locations on these dies.
Stacking IC dies to share power, clock and/or data-bus signals between two dies reduces the overall number of interconnect layers of the two dies because it allows the two dies to share some of the higher-level interconnect layers in order to distribute power, clock and/or data-bus signals. For example, as further described below, this sharing of interconnect layers allows the two dies to share one power mesh between them. In some embodiments, this shared power mesh is formed by direct bonding a power/ground top interconnect layer of one die (e.g., layer 160 of the first die 105) with a power/ground top interconnect layer of the other die (e.g., layer 165 of the second die 110). In other embodiments, this shared power mesh is formed by two interconnect layers of one die (e.g., the top two interconnect layers of the second die 110) that are shared with the other die (e.g., the first die 105). Reducing the higher-level interconnect layers is beneficial as the wiring on these layers often consume more space due to their thicker, wider and coarser arrangements. In addition, the ability to share the use of these interconnect layers on multiple dies may reduce the congestion and route limitations that may be more constrained on one die than another.
Stacking the IC dies in many cases also allows the wiring for delivering the power, clock and/or data-bus signals to be much shorter, as the stacking provides more candidate locations for shorter connections between power, clock and/or data-bus signal interconnects and the circuit components that are to receive these signals. For instance, as further described below, some embodiments provide data-bus signals to circuits on the first data through short direct-bonded connections from a data bus on a shared interconnect layer of the second die. These direct-bonded connections are much shorter than connections that would route data-bus signals on the first die about several functional blocks in order to reach a circuit within another block from that block's periphery. The data signals that traverse the short direct-bonded connections reach their destination circuits on the first die very quickly (e.g., within 1 or 2 clock cycles) as they do not need to be routed from the periphery of the destination block. On a less-congested shared interconnect layer, a data-bus line can be positioned over or near a destination circuit on the first die to ensure that the data-bus signal on this line can be provide to the destination circuit through a short direct-bonded connection.
Stacking the IC dies also allows the dies to share power, clock and/or data-bus circuits. For instance, as shown in
Having the first die share power, clock and/or data-bus circuits defined on the second die frees up space on the first die to implement other circuits and functional blocks of the 3D circuit. The resulting savings can be quite significant because power, clock and/or data-bus circuits can consume a significant portion of available space. For example, chip I/O circuits (e.g., SERDES I/O circuits) and memory I/O circuits (e.g., DDR memory I/O circuits) can be larger than many other circuits on an IC. Pushing off all or some of the power and clock circuits from the first die to the second die further frees up space on the first die because power and clock circuits often need to be isolated from other circuits and/or signals that can affect the operation of the power and clock circuits. Having system level circuits on just one die also allows for better isolation of such circuits (e.g., better isolation of voltage regulators and/or clock circuits).
In sum, stacking the IC dies optimizes the cost and performance of a chip stack system by combining certain functionalities into common interconnect layers and sharing these functions with multiple die in the stack. The functionalities provided by the higher-level interconnect layers can be shared with multiple dies in the stack. The higher-level interconnect layers require thicker and wider metal and coarser pitch. Removing them allows each chip to be connected with a few inner level interconnect layers with higher density vias to enable higher performance and lower cost. Examples of the high-level interconnect layers include system level circuitry layers, and RDL layers. The system circuits include power circuits, clock circuits, data bus circuits, ESD (electro-static discharge) circuits, test circuits, etc.
Each interconnect layer of an IC die typically has a preferred wiring direction (also called routing direction). Also, in some embodiments, the preferred wiring directions of successive interconnect layers of an IC die are orthogonal to each other. For example, the preferred wiring directions of an IC die typically alternate between horizontal and vertical preferred wiring directions, although several wiring architectures have been introduced that employ 45 degree and 60 degree offset between the preferred wiring directions of successive interconnect layers. Alternating the wiring directions between successive interconnect layers of an IC die has several advantages, such as providing better signal routing and avoiding capacitive coupling between long parallel segments on adjacent interconnect layers.
When face-to-face mounting of first and second IC dies, some embodiments have the preferred wiring directions of the top interconnect layers of the first and second dies be orthogonal to each other in order to realize these same benefits as well as other unique benefits of orthogonal preferred wiring directions at the juncture of the face-to-face mounting.
Different embodiments employ different techniques to ensure that the preferred wiring directions of the top interconnect layers of the first and second dies are orthogonal to each other.
Also, in some embodiments, the first and second dies 805 and 810 are fabricated with several masks that are jointly defined as these two dies implement one IC design. The jointly defined masks for the two dies 805 and 810 share one or more common masks in some embodiments. In other embodiments, the first and second dies 805 and 810 are from different manufacturing processes and/or different foundries.
However, before face-to-face stacking the two dies 805 and 810, the second die is rotated by 90 degrees. This rotation in effect flips the preferred wiring direction of each interconnect layer of the second die to be orthogonal to the preferred wiring direction of the corresponding interconnect layer of the first die. Thus, the top layer of the rotated second die has effectively a vertical preferred wiring direction compared to the horizontal preferred wiring direction of the top layer of the first die.
In
Having the preferred wiring direction of the top interconnect layers of the first and second dies be orthogonal to each other has several advantages. It provides better signal routing between the IC dies and avoids capacitive coupling between long parallel segments on adjacent interconnect layers of the two dies. Also, it allows the first and second dies to share the power lines on their top orthogonal layers, and thereby eliminating one or more of their power layers. Orthogonal wiring directions on the top layers of the first and second dies increases the overlap between the power wiring on these layers. This overlap increases the number of candidate locations for bonding different pairs of power wires on the top interconnect layers of the different dies to provide power signals from one die to another die.
In some embodiments, the power/ground lines on one die's interconnect layer are directly bonded (e.g., through DBI interconnects) to corresponding power/ground lines on the other die's interconnect layer at each or some of the overlaps 955 between corresponding pairs of power lines and pairs of ground lines. This direct bonding creates a very robust power mesh 950 for the first and second dies without using two different interconnect layers for each of these two dies. This frees up at least one interconnect layer on each die and in total eliminates two interconnect layers from the 3D circuit (formed by the face-to-face bonded dies 905 and 910) by having the two dies share one power mesh. Also, the face-to-face mounted top interconnect layers allow thicker and wider interconnect lines to be used for the power signals, which, in turn, allows these signals to face less resistance and suffer less signal degradation.
In some embodiments, the power and ground signals are supplied by power circuitry defined on the substrate of the second die 910 as described above by reference to
The power mesh architecture of
In some embodiments, the power and ground signals are supplied by power circuitry defined on the substrate of the second die 1010 to the power and ground lines 1015-1030 on the top-two interconnect layers 1002 and 1004 of the second die 1010. From these interconnect layers 1002 and 1004, these signals are supplied to power and ground interconnect lines and/or pads on the top interconnect layer of the first die 1005 through direct-bonded connections (e.g., DBI connections) between the first and second dies 1005 and 1010. From the top interconnect layer of the first die 1005, the power and ground signals are then supplied through vias to other interconnect layers of the first die 1005 and to circuits defined on the substrate of the first die.
In power mesh architectures of
Also, in some embodiments, a first power mesh is defined on the top two interconnect layers of a first die, while a second power mesh is defined on the top two interconnect layers of a second die that is face to face mounted with the first die through a direct bonding process. In some of these embodiments, the direction of the power/ground interconnects on the top interconnect layer of the first die is orthogonal to the direction of the power/ground interconnects on the top interconnect layer of the second die.
In other embodiments, two dies that are face-to-face mounted through a direct bonding process (e.g., a DBI process) have power/ground lines on the top two interconnect layers of a first die (like layers 1002 and 1004 of
The shared power meshes that are formed by the top interconnect layers of one or both dies are used in some embodiments to shield other types of interconnect lines on these layers or between these layers. Specifically, some embodiments not only share a power mesh between two face-to-face mounted dies, but also share a clock tree that is formed on one or two interconnect layers that are shared between the two dies. In some embodiments, the clock tree is formed on the same shared interconnect layers that form the power mesh, while in other embodiments the interconnect layer or layers that contain the clock mesh are in between the interconnect layers that form the power mesh. The power mesh in some embodiments shields the clock lines from capacitive coupling of the other clock and data interconnect lines.
As shown in the second and third sets of schematics of
The power and ground lines 1130 and 1135 on each interconnect layer alternate in their order (i.e., a power line is followed by a ground line, which is followed by a power line, and so on). Also, one set of clock line segments are placed between each neighboring pair of power and ground lines 1130 and 1135. Thus, each clock line segment 1140 on each interconnect layer is between two power/ground lines 1130 and 1135 that shield the clock line segment from nearby clock and data lines and thereby reduce the capacitive coupling between the clock line segment and the nearby clock and data lines. Also, by virtue of being in the top interconnect layers, the clock line segments are thicker and wider, which, in turn, reduces their resistance and allows the clock signals that they carry to be driven longer distances.
The horizontal and vertical clock line segments on the interconnect layers 1115 and 1120 form a shared H-tree clock structure 1160 that distributes a clock signal to the circuits on the first and second dies 1105 and 1110. The H-tree clock structure will be further described below. To form the clock tree 1160, each horizontal clock line segment on the interconnect layer 1115 is connected through at least one direct bonded connection (e.g., DBI connection) to at least one vertical clock line segment on the interconnect layer 1120. Some of clock line segments on one top interconnect layer (e.g., layer 1115) connect to three clock line segments on the other interconnect layer (e.g., layer 1120) through three direct bonded connections (e.g., DBI connections). Similarly, to form the power mesh 1150, (1) each power line on one interconnect layer (e.g., layer 1115) connects through one or more direct bonded connections (e.g., DBI connections) to one or more power lines on the other interconnect layer (e.g., layer 1120), and (2) each ground line on one interconnect layer (e.g., layer 1115) connects through one or more direct bonded connections (e.g., DBI connections) to one or more ground lines on the other interconnect layer (e.g., layer 1120).
The power mesh 1150 and clock tree 1160 eliminate two or more interconnect layers from the 3D circuit by having the two dies share two interconnect layers 1105 and 1110 that together form the power mesh 1150 and the clock tree 1160. On each die 1105 or 1110, the power, ground and clock signals are distributed among the interconnect layers of that die through vias between the interconnect layers. In some embodiments, power and clock circuits are defined on the substrate of only one of the dies (e.g., on the substrate of the second die 1110). In other embodiments, the power circuits are defined on the substrate of one die (e.g., the substrate of the first die 1105), while the clock circuits are defined on the substrate of the other die (e.g., the substrate of the second die 1110). In other embodiments, power and/or clock circuits are defined on the substrate of both dies 1105 and 1110.
The H-tree clock structure includes a hierarchical series of H-structures, with each H-structure distributing the same clock signal from the center of the H-structure to the outer four corners of the H-structure, where the signal is passed to the center of another, smaller H-structure, until the clock signal reaches the outer corner of the smallest H-structures. The center of the largest H-structure receives the clock signal from a clock circuit that is defined on the second die's substrate in some embodiments. In other embodiments, this signal is supplied to other locations of the H-structure from the clock circuit on the second die's substrate, or to a location on the H-structure from a clock circuit on the first die's substrate. In some embodiments, the clock signal is distributed from H-tree structure 1160 to circuits and interconnects of the first and second dies through vias.
Specifically, each interconnect layer 1215 or 1220 has alternating power lines 1225 and ground lines 1230 and clock line segments between neighboring pairs of power and ground lines. Vias are defined at each or some of the overlaps between corresponding pairs of power lines, corresponding pairs of ground lines and corresponding pairs of clock line segments, in order to create the power mesh 1250 and the clock tree 1260. The shared interconnect architecture of
In some embodiments, the power, ground and clock signals are supplied by power and clock circuitry defined on the substrate of the second die 1210 to the power, ground and clock lines on the interconnect layers 1215 and 1220 of the second die 1210. From these interconnect layers 1215 and 1220, the power, ground and clock signals are supplied to power, ground and clock interconnect lines and/or pads on the top interconnect layer of the first die 1205 through direct-bonded connections (e.g., DBI connections) between the first and second dies 1205 and 1210. From the top interconnect layer of the first die 1205, the power, ground and clock signals are then supplied through vias to other interconnect layers of the first die 1205 and to circuits defined on the substrate of the first die. In some embodiments, power circuits and/or clock circuits are also defined on the substrate of the first die 1205.
The power/ground lines in some embodiments alternate on each of the interconnect layers 1315 and 1325. Also, in some embodiments, the power/ground lines on the interconnect layer 1325 of the second die connect to pads on this die's interconnect layer 1320, and these pads are connected through direct bonded connections (e.g., DBI connections) to power lines on the interconnect layer 1315. The power/ground signals in some embodiments are distributed to other interconnect and substrate layers on each die through vias.
Also, in some embodiments, the clock signal is distributed from H-tree structure 1360 to circuits and interconnects of the second die through vias, while it is distributed from this structure 1360 to circuits and interconnects of the first die through direct-bonded connections between this structure and clock pads on layer 1315 of the first die. The direct-bonded connections in some embodiments emanate from the corners of some of the H-structures and travel along the z-axis. The center of the largest H-structure in this clock tree receives the clock signal from a clock circuit that is defined on the second die's substrate in some embodiments. In other embodiments, this signal is supplied to other locations of the H-structure from the clock circuit on the second die's substrate, or to a location on the H-structure from a clock circuit on the first die's substrate.
In the architecture 1400, the power, ground and clock signals are supplied to circuits and interconnects of the first die by directly bonding these circuits and interconnects through direct-bonded connections from the power/ground lines and clock lines/pads on layer 1415 of the second die to lines/pads on the top layer 1412 of the first die 1405. The power, ground and clock signals are supplied in some embodiments to circuits, interconnects, and pads of the second die through vias. Similarly, in some embodiments, the power, ground and clock signals are supplied from the top layer 1412 of the first die 1405 to circuits and interconnects of the first die 1405 through vias.
The vertical and horizontal segments of the H-tree structure 1560 are connected to each other through direct-bonded connections (e.g. DBI connections). The center of the largest H-structure receives the clock signal from a clock circuit that is defined on the second die's substrate in some embodiments. In other embodiments, this signal is supplied to other locations of the H-structure from the clock circuit on the second die's substrate, or to a location on the H-structure from a clock circuit on the first die's substrate. In some embodiments, the clock signal is distributed from the clock lines of the interconnect layer 1515 of the first die 1505 to circuits and interconnects of the first die through vias defined in the first die. Similarly, the clock signal is distributed from the clock lines on the interconnect layer 1520 of the second die 1510 to circuits and interconnects of the second die through vias.
As shown, the H-tree clock structure 1560 is between the interconnect layer 1525 of the first die 1505 and the top interconnect layer 1530 of the second die 1510. Like the position of the H-tree structure 1360, the placement of the H-tree clock structure 1560 between the power/ground interconnect layers 1525 and 1530 shields the clock line segments in this structure from capacitively coupling to interconnect lines that carry data and other signals on other interconnect layers of the first and second dies 1505 and 1510.
In this example, the power/ground layers 1525 and 1530 connect to power/ground pads on clock interconnect layers 1515 and 1520 through vias. The power/ground pads on one of these interconnect layers (e.g., layer 1515) connect to corresponding power/ground pads on the other interconnect layer (e.g., layer 1520) through direct-bonded connections (e.g., DBI connections).
Through these vias and direct-bonded connections, corresponding pairs of power/ground lines are connected on the interconnect layers 1525 and 1530 to form the power mesh 1550.
The power/ground signals in some embodiments are distributed to other interconnect and substrate layers on each die through vias. In some embodiments, the four power/clock interconnect layers 1515, 1520, 1525 and 1530 are the interconnect layers of one of the dies (e.g., the second die 1510), and these four layers are shared by the first die 1505. In other embodiments, three of these interconnect layers belong to one die and one of them belongs to another die.
In some embodiments, the 3D chip structure that is formed by two face-to-face mounted dies has one or more clock interconnect layers in between a full power mesh that is formed on the first die and a full/half power mesh that is formed on the second die. A full power mesh on a die in some embodiments includes at least two interconnect layers that contain power/ground interconnect lines. In some of these embodiments, a partial power mesh on a die includes one interconnect layer that contains power/ground interconnect lines, and that connects through z-axis vertical connections (e.g., via and DBI connections) to the power mesh of the other die. In some of these embodiments, the full or partial power mesh layer(s) on one die do not include the top interconnect layer of that die as the top layer is used to carry clock or data interconnect lines (like the top interconnect layers 1515 and 1520 of
In some embodiments, two vertically stacked IC dies do not share power-distributing interconnect layers but share interconnect layers for sharing clock signal or signals.
As in the examples illustrated in
One or more clock line segments on the top layer 1720 of the second die 1710 in some embodiments receive the clock signal from a clock circuit that is defined on the second die's substrate. In some embodiments, the clock signal is distributed from the clock lines on the interconnect layer 1715 of the first die 1705 to circuits and interconnects of the first die through vias of the first die. Similarly, the clock signal is distributed from the clock lines on the interconnect layer 1720 of the second die 1710 to circuits and interconnects of the second die through vias.
Direct bonded connections between the first and second dies 1805 and 1810 then supply the clock signal from this clock structure to clock lines/pads on the top interconnect layer of the first die 1805. The clock signal is then passed to other interconnect and substrate layers of the first die 1805 through vias. The clock signal is also passed to other interconnect and substrate layers of the second die 1810 through vias. In some embodiments, a clock circuit on the second die's substrate supplies the clock signal to one or more clock line segments on interconnect layer 1815 and/or interconnect layer 1820 of the second die 1810. In other embodiments, the clock signal is generated by a clock circuit defined on the substrate of the first die 1805.
One of the unique features of the 3D chips illustrated in
In addition to isolating the clock signals, the face-to-face mounted top interconnect layers allow thicker and wider interconnect lines to be used for the clock signals. These signals have less resistance and suffer less signal degradation. Hence, the clock signals can be driven longer distance with no clock signal regeneration (which would require the clock signals to travel to the buffer circuits formed on a semiconductor substrate) or with less clock signal regeneration. This lower resistance advantage (i.e., less signal degradation advantage) of thicker and wider interconnects on upper interconnect layers is also enjoyed by power and data interconnect line segments that are defined on the upper interconnect layers and that are shared between two or more vertically stacked IC dies (e.g., two face-to-face mounted IC dies).
As mentioned above, stacking IC dies also allows two or more dies to share a data bus on one or more share interconnect layers.
Although a data bus does not necessarily need to include parallel interconnect lines, the data bus 1950 in this example includes several parallel interconnect lines that connect to other interconnect lines on the first and second dies through vias and direct-bonded connections at one or more locations along each interconnect line. These lines are shown to be physically parallel, but in other cases, they are just topologically parallel (e.g., on one end, they connect to several adjacent locations at one position of a die or interconnect layer, while on another end, they connect to several other adjacent locations at another position in a die or interconnect layer). The data bus 1950 connects through interconnect lines and vias to an input/output interface 1955 of a cache storage 1960 that is defined on the substrate 1965 of the second die 1910. Through interconnect lines and vias, the data bus 1950 also connects to circuits defined on the second die 1910, so that through these connections and the I/O interface 1955 these circuits can receive output data read from the cache storage 1960, and provide input data for storing in the cache storage 1960.
Through the direct bonded connections, the data bus 1950 also connects to interconnect lines/pads on the top interconnect layer 1915 of the first die 1905. These interconnect lines/pads on the interconnect layer 1915 connect to circuits on the first die 1905 through interconnect lines and vias of the first die 1905. Through these connections (i.e., the interconnect lines, vias and direct-bonded connections) and the I/O interface 1955, the circuits defined on the first die 1905 can receive output data read from the cache storage 1960, and provide input data for storing in the cache storage 1960.
Stacking the IC dies so that they can share one or more data buses allows the wiring for delivering the data to be much shorter, as the stacking provides more candidate locations for shorter connections between data bus interconnects and the circuit components that are to receive these signals. For instance, instead of routing data signals on the second die about several functional blocks in order to reach a circuit or component within another block from that block's periphery, the data signals can be provided directly to that circuit or component on the second die from data-bus interconnect on the shared interconnect layer of the first die. The data signal can be provided to its destination very quickly (e.g., within 1 or 2 clock cycles) as it does not need to be routed from the destination block's periphery, but rather is provided by a short interconnect from the shared interconnect layer above. Shorter connections for data signals reduce the capacitive load on the connections that carry these signals, which, in turn, reduces the signal skew on these lines and allows the 3D circuit to use no or less signal isolation schemes.
The data I/O unit 2030 connects through interconnect lines and vias of the second die to the data bus 2022 that is defined on a top interconnect layer 2020 of the second die 2010. As shown, this top interconnect layer 2020 connects to the top interconnect layer 2015 of the first die 2005 through direct bonded connections (e.g., DBI connections). In this example, the data bus 2022 is again shown to have several parallel interconnect lines that connect to other interconnect lines on the first and second dies through vias and direct-bonded connections at one or more locations along each interconnect line. However, as mentioned above, the interconnect lines of a data bus do not necessarily need to be parallel.
Through interconnect lines and vias, the data bus 2022 connects to circuits defined on the second die 2010, so that through these connections these circuits can receive data from and supply data to the data I/O unit 2030. Through the direct bonded connections, the data bus 2022 also connects to interconnect lines/pads on the top interconnect layer 2015 of the first die 2005. These interconnect lines/pads on the interconnect layer 2015 connect to circuits on the first die 2005 through interconnect lines and vias of the first die 2005. Through these connections (i.e., the interconnect lines, vias and direct-bonded connections), the circuits defined on the first die 2005 can receive data from and supply data to the data I/O unit 2030.
Some embodiments distribute an IO circuit between two or more vertically stacked IC dies. For instance, some embodiments distribute a SerDes circuit between two vertically stacked IC dies. A SerDes circuit includes digital (logic) portions and analog portions. In some embodiments, the digital portions of the SerDes circuit are implemented on a first IC die, while the analog portions are implemented on a second IC die that is face-to-face mounted or otherwise vertically stacked with the first die. This IO interface has to involve the interaction between these two layers before signals are passed to the core circuitry. Only the two layers together complete the IO circuitry.
The power/ground rails include two power rails 2062 and 2066 on the top interconnect layer 2070 of the second die 2060 and two ground rails 2064 and 2068 on the top interconnect layer 2072 of the first die 2055. The power and ground rails 2062 and 2064 are the I/O interface power and ground rails that carry the power and ground signals for the I/O circuitry (e.g., I/O drivers). The power and ground rails 2066 and 2068 are the core power and ground rails that carry the power and ground signals for the core circuits of the first and second dies. The core circuits of the dies are the circuits that perform the computation operations of the dies.
In some embodiments, each power or ground rail is a rectangular ring formed by four rectangular segments, with each segment spanning one of the four sides of the die and connecting to two other rectangular segments of the same rail. In other embodiments, each power rail is not a contiguous ring that spans the entire periphery of the die, as it has one or more discontinuities (e.g., at the corners of the interconnect layer on which it resides). Also, while showing power and ground rails on the top interconnect layers 2070 and 2072, one of ordinary skill will realize that in some embodiments power and ground rails exist on other interconnect layers of the dies (e.g., power rails on several interconnect layers of one die, and ground rails on several interconnect layers of the other die).
Multiple drivers 2074 are formed on the substrate 2082 of the first die 2055. When signals traverse from circuits outside of the dies to core circuits of the die, the drivers 2074 level shift these signals to convert them from their external voltage levels to internal voltage levels. Similarly, when signals traverse from the core circuits of the die to circuits outside of the dies, the drivers 2074 level shift these signals to convert them from their internal voltage levels to external voltage levels. The drivers 2074 also provide signal buffering. To perform their operations (e.g., level shifting operations), the drivers receive power and ground signals from the power and ground rails 2062-2068.
In some embodiments, the substrate 2080 of the second die 2060 includes the signal pads that are connected through TSVs to signal pads on the backside of the second die 2060. These backside signal pads are connected to external interconnects (e.g., micro bump arrays) that receive signals from and supply signals to external circuits outside of the 3D chip 2052. Through these backside signal pads, the signals pads on the front side of the second die substrate 2080 receive signals from external circuits for the I/O circuitry, and supply signals from the I/O circuitry to external circuits. One of ordinary skill will realize that other embodiments use other structures (e.g., copper pillars connected through interposers) to supply signals to the dies.
As shown, the second die 2060 includes the ESD circuits 2073 that are defined on its substrate, while the first die 2055 includes the drivers 2074 that are defined on its substrate. The ESD circuits are for maintaining signal stability inside of the chip. The ESD circuits are designed in some embodiments to dissipate quickly external irregular signal surges, in order to maintain signal stability inside of the chip. Each die 2055 or 2060 also includes decoupling capacitors that are for maintaining signal stability inside of the chip by eliminating signal noise from affecting signal quality on the chip.
The power or ground rail (I/O or core) on the top interconnect layer of each die has to provide its power signal or ground signal to the other die through the top interconnect layer of the other die. In some embodiments, this is done by having the power signal or ground signal traverse down one layer on the same die with one or more vias, traverse along interconnect lines on that layer, and then traverse back up along one or more vias to one or more pads on the top interconnect layer of its die. These pads have direct-bonded connections (e.g., DBI connections) to pads on the top interconnect layer of the other die. The pads on the other die then distribute to circuits on the other die the received power or ground signals through vias and interconnect lines. Also, between respective power and ground rails (e.g., I/O power and ground rails, or core power and ground rails), some embodiments define decoupling capacitors in the face-to-face mounted layer coupling the two dies, in order to suppress the effect of signal noise on the power supply.
In some embodiments, the core power and ground rails 2066 and 2068 respectively connect to interior power and ground lines on the same interconnect layers as the rails 2066 and 2068. These interior power and ground lines in some embodiments form an interior power mesh, such as the power mesh shown in either
In prior IC designs, the power/ground rails for the I/O circuitry and IC core are typically defined as four concentric rectangular rings that are placed on a single die along with the decoupling capacitors, drivers, and ESD circuits of the I/O circuitry. Placing these components on one die requires the I/O circuitry to consume a lot of area on the periphery of an IC die. This, in turn, leads to larger dies or leaves less space for the IC core. The 3D chip 2052, on the other hand, does not suffer these shortcomings as its I/O circuitry is split on the two dies 2055 and 2060. Also, by placing the power and ground rails (for the I/O and the core) on different dies, the 3D chip 2052 has far less area devoted to the power and ground rails, leaving more space to the circuits of the IC's core.
One of ordinary skill will understand that the 3D chip 2052 presents only one way by which the I/O circuits and power rails can be distributed among two vertically stacked (e.g., two face-to-face mounted dies). Other embodiments use other techniques to distribute the I/O circuits and power rails. For instance, in other embodiments, one I/O power rail is on the periphery of a top interconnect layer of a first die, while another I/O power rail is closer to the center of the top interconnect layer(s) of a second die vertically stacked (e.g., face-to-face mounted) with the first die. Still other embodiments define multiple stripes of I/O rails on the higher interconnect layers of two vertically stacked dies and then define multiple cores between different stripes. Accordingly, the architecture presented in
In some embodiments, the first and second dies 2105 and 2110 are the first and second dies shown in any of the
In some embodiments, the interconnects on the backside of the second die 2210 create the signal paths for defining one or more system level circuits for the 3D chip 2200 (i.e., for the circuits of the first and second dies 2205 and 2210). Examples of system level circuits are power circuits, clock circuits, data I/O signals, test circuits, etc. In some embodiments, the circuit components that are part of the system level circuits (e.g., the power circuits, etc.) are defined on the front side of the second die 2210. The circuit components can include active components (e.g., transistors, diodes, etc.), or passive/analog components (e.g., resistors, capacitors (e.g., decoupling capacitors), inductors, filters, etc.
In some embodiments, some or all of the wiring for interconnecting these circuit components to form the system level circuits are defined on interconnect layers on the backside of the second die 2210. Using these backside interconnect layers to implement the system level circuits of the 3D chip 2200 frees up one or more interconnect layers on the front side of the second die 2210 to share other types of interconnect lines with the first die 2205. The backside interconnect layers are also used to define some of the circuit components (e.g., decoupling capacitors, etc.) in some embodiments. As further described below, the backside of the second die 2210 in some embodiments can also connect to the front or back side of a third die.
In some embodiments, one or more of the layers on the backside of the second die 2210 are also used to mount this die to the ball grid array 2240, which allows the 3D chip 2100 to mount on a printed circuit board. In some embodiments, the system circuitry receives some or all of the system level signals (e.g., power signals, clock signals, data I/O signals, test signals, etc.) through the ball grid array 2240 connected to the backside of the third die.
In some embodiments, the backside of the second die 2210 of chip 2200 is used to define one or more interconnect layers on which power/ground lines are defined. For instance, in some embodiments, a first interconnect layer on the backside of the second die provides a first set of alternating power and ground lines, while a second interconnect layer on this backside provides another set of alternating power and ground lines. These two sets of alternating power/ground lines form a power mesh (similar the meshes described above by reference to
The power/ground lines on such backside interconnect layer(s) are thicker and wider lines in some embodiments than the lines on the top interconnect layers on the front side(s) of the first and second dies 2205 and 2210. Gate stress is an undesirable side effect of having very thick power lines on the top interconnect layers on the front sides of the first and second dies. However, this is not an issue when placing thick (e.g., wide) power lines on the backside of IC dies. The thicker and wider power lines on the backside of the second die have less resistance (suffer less signal degradation) and are ideal for supplying additional power signals to the core circuits on the first and second dies. The circuits towards the center of a die can experience power signal degradation due to the power consumption of the circuits that are closer to the periphery of the die. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the power/ground lines on the backside of the second die is used in some embodiments to provide non-degraded power signals to the circuits that are closer to the middle of the first and second dies.
Alternatively to, or conjunctively with, defining the power/ground lines on the backside of the second die 2210, clock lines and/or data-bus lines are defined in some embodiments on the backside of the second die. Such clock lines and data-bus lines can be used to achieve analogous interconnect architectures to those described above by reference to
As shown, the process 2300 starts (at 2305) by defining components (e.g., transistors) on the substrates of the first and second wafers 2405 and 2410, and defining multiple interconnect layers above each substrate to define interconnections that form microcircuits (e.g., gates) on each die. To define these components and interconnects on each wafer, the process 2300 performs multiple IC fabrication operations (e.g., film deposition, patterning, doping, etc.) for each wafer in some embodiments.
After the first and second wafers have been processed to define their components and interconnects, the process 2300 face-to-face mounts (at 2310) the first and second wafers 2205 and 2210 through a direct bonding process, such as a DBI process.
Next, at 2315, the process 2300 performs a thinning operation on the backside of the second wafer 2410 to remove a portion of this wafer's substrate layer. As shown in
These interconnect layers 2430 include one or more layers that allow the 3D chip stack to electrically connect to the ball grid array. In some embodiments, the interconnect lines/pads on the backside of the third wafer also produce one or more redistribution layers (RDL layers) that allow signals to be redistributed to different locations on the backside. The interconnect layers 2430 on the backside of the second die in some embodiments also create the signal paths for defining one or more system level circuits (e.g., power circuits, clock circuits, data I/O signals, test circuits, etc.) for the circuits of the first and second dies. In some embodiments, the system level circuits are defined by circuit components (e.g., transistors, etc.) that are defined on the front side of the second die. The process 2300 in some embodiments does not define interconnect layers on the backside of the second wafer to create the signal paths for the system level circuits, as it uses only the first and second dies' interconnect layers between their two faces for establishing the system level signal paths.
After defining the interconnect layers on the backside of the second wafer 2410, the process cuts (at 2325) the stacked wafers into individual chip stacks, with each chip stack include two stacked IC dies 2205 and 2210. The process then mounts (at 2330) each chip stack on a ball grid array and encapsulates the chip stack within one chip housing (e.g., by using a chip case). The process then ends.
In some embodiments, three or more IC dies are stacked to form a 3D chip.
In
In some embodiments, the third die 2815 includes system circuitry, such as power circuits, clock circuits, data I/O circuits, test circuits, etc. The system circuitry of the third die 2815 in some embodiments supplies system level signals (e.g., power signals, clock signals, data I/O signals, test signals, etc.) to the circuits of the first and second dies 2805 and 2810. In some embodiments, the system circuitry receives some or all of the system level signals through the ball grid array 2840 connected to the backside of the third die.
In
Other embodiments use other 3D chip stacking architectures. For instance, instead of face-to-back mounting the fourth and third dies 2920 and 2915 in
While the invention has been described with reference to numerous specific details, one of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the invention can be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit of the invention. For instance, one of ordinary skill will understand that even though several H-trees were described above as example of clock distribution networks, other embodiments use other types of clock distribution networks. Also, in some embodiments, the stacked dies in a 3D chip share multiple different clock trees on multiple shared interconnect layers in order to distribute multiple different clock signals (e.g., to distribute a different clock signal with each different shared clock tree).
In the examples illustrated in
In some embodiments, the preferred wiring directions of the top layer of the interposer is orthogonal to the preferred wiring directions of the top layer of the first die. This can be achieved by using similar techniques to those described above by reference to
Also, the 3D circuits and ICs of some embodiments have been described by reference to several 3D structures with vertically aligned IC dies. However, other embodiments are implemented with a myriad of other 3D structures. For example, in some embodiments, the 3D circuits are formed with multiple smaller dies placed on a larger die or wafer.
Any and all applications for which a foreign or domestic priority claim is identified in the Application Data Sheet as filed with the present application are hereby incorporated by reference under 37 CFR 1.57. This application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/953,113, filed Nov. 19, 2020, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/889,698, filed Jun. 1, 2020, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,886,177, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/976,817, filed May 10, 2018, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,672,663, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/619,910, filed Jan. 21, 2018, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/575,184, filed Oct. 20, 2017, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/575,259, filed Oct. 20, 2017, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application 62/575,240, filed Oct. 20, 2017. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/976,817 is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/725,030, filed Oct. 4, 2017, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,522,352, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application 62/405,833, filed Oct. 7, 2016. The content of each of the above applications is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
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