Patent Grant
12051674
This application relates to the general field of Integrated Circuit (IC) devices and fabrication methods, and more particularly to multilayer or Three Dimensional Integrated Circuit (3D-IC) devices and fabrication methods.
Over the past 40 years, there has been a dramatic increase in functionality and performance of Integrated Circuits (ICs). This has largely been due to the phenomenon of “scaling”; i.e., component sizes within ICs have been reduced (“scaled”) with every successive generation of technology. There are two main classes of components in Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) ICs, namely transistors and wires. With “scaling”, transistor performance and density typically improve and this has contributed to the previously-mentioned increases in IC performance and functionality. However, wires (interconnects) that connect together transistors degrade in performance with “scaling”. The situation today is that wires dominate the performance, functionality and power consumption of ICs.
3D stacking of semiconductor devices or chips is one avenue to tackle the wire issues. By arranging transistors in 3 dimensions instead of 2 dimensions (as was the case in the 1990s), the transistors in ICs can be placed closer to each other. This reduces wire lengths and keeps wiring delay low.
There are many techniques to construct 3D stacked integrated circuits or chips including:
An early work on monolithic 3D was presented in U.S. Pat. No. 7,052,941 and follow-on work in related patents includes U.S. Pat. No. 7,470,598. A technique which has been used over the last 20 years to build SOI wafers, called “Smart-Cut” or “Ion-Cut”, was presented in U.S. Pat. No. 7,470,598 as one of the options to perform layer transfer for the formation of a monolithic 3D device. Yet in a related patent disclosure, by the same inventor of U.S. Pat. No. 7,470,598, U.S. application Ser. No. 12/618,542 it states: “In one embodiment of the previous art, exfoliating implant method in which ion-implanting Hydrogen into the wafer surface is known. But this exfoliating implant method can destroy lattice structure of the doped layer 400 by heavy ion-implanting. In this case, to recover the destroyed lattice structure, a long time thermal treatment in very high temperature is required. This long time/high temperature thermal treatment can severely deform the cell devices of the lower region.” Moreover, in U.S. application Ser. No. 12/635,496 by the same inventor is stated: [0034] Among the technologies to form the detaching layer, one of the well-known technologies is Hydrogen Exfoliating Implant. This method has a critical disadvantage which can destroy lattice structures of the substrate because it uses high amount of ion implantation. In order to recover the destroyed lattice structures, the substrate should be cured by heat treatment in very high temperature long time. This kind of high temperature heat treatment can damage cell devices in the lower regions.” Furthermore, in U.S. application Ser. No. 13/175,652 it is stated: “Among the technologies to form the detaching layer 207, one technology is called as exfoliating implant in which gas phase ions such as hydrogen is implanted to form the detaching layer, but in this technology, the crystal lattice structure of the multiple doped layers 201, 203, 205 can be damaged. In order to recover the crystal lattice damage, a thermal treatment under very high temperature and longtime should be performed, and this can strongly damage the cell devices underneath.” In fact the Inventor had posted a video infomercial on his corporate website, and was up-loaded on YouTube on Jun. 1, 2011, clearly stating in reference to the Smart Cut process: “The wafer bonding and detaching method is well-known SOI or Semiconductor-On-Insulator technology. Compared to conventional bulk semiconductor substrates, SOI has been introduced to increase transistor performance. However, it is not designed for 3D IC either. Let me explain the reasons . . . . The dose of hydrogen is too high and, therefore, semiconductor crystalline lattices are demolished by the hydrogen ion bombardment during the hydrogen ion implantation. Therefore, typically annealing at more than 1,100 Celsius is required for curing the lattice damage after wafer detaching. Such high temperature processing certainly destroys underlying devices and interconnect layers. Without high temperature annealing, the transferred layer should be the same as a highly defective amorphous layer. It seems that there is no way to cure the lattice damage at low temperatures. BeSang has disruptive 3D layer formation technology and it enables formation of defect-free single crystalline semiconductor layer at low temperatures . . . .”
In at least one embodiment presented herein, an innovative method to repair the crystal lattice damage caused by the hydrogen implant is described.
Regardless of the technique used to construct 3D stacked integrated circuits or chips, heat removal is a serious issue for this technology. For example, when a layer of circuits with power density P is stacked atop another layer with power density P, the net power density is 2P. Removing the heat produced due to this power density is a significant challenge. In addition, many heat producing regions in 3D stacked integrated circuits or chips have a high thermal resistance to the heat sink, and this makes heat removal even more difficult.
Several solutions have been proposed to tackle this issue of heat removal in 3D stacked integrated circuits and chips. These are described in the following paragraphs.
Publications have suggested passing liquid coolant through multiple device layers of a 3D-IC to remove heat. This is described in “Microchannel Cooled 3D Integrated Systems”, Proc. Intl. Interconnect Technology Conference, 2008 by D. C. Sekar, et al., and “Forced Convective Interlayer Cooling in Vertically Integrated Packages,” Proc. Intersoc. Conference on Thermal Management (ITHERM), 2008 by T. Brunschweiler, et al.
Thermal vias have been suggested as techniques to transfer heat from stacked device layers to the heat sink. Use of power and ground vias for thermal conduction in 3D-ICs has also been suggested. These techniques are described in “Allocating Power Ground Vias in 3D ICs for Simultaneous Power and Thermal Integrity” ACM Transactions on Design Automation of Electronic Systems (TODAES), May 2009 by Hao Yu, Joanna Ho and Lei He.
Other techniques to remove heat from 3D Integrated Circuits and Chips will be beneficial.
Additionally the 3D technology according to some embodiments of the invention may enable some very innovative IC alternatives with reduced development costs, increased yield, and other illustrative benefits.
The invention may be directed to multilayer or Three Dimensional Integrated Circuit (3D IC) devices and fabrication methods.
In one aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including a first single crystal silicon; a first metal layer over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include a second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer over the first level; a fourth metal layer over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with less than 40 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the first level, where the via has a diameter of less than 450 nm.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including first single crystal silicon; a first metal layer over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer over the first level; a fourth metal layer over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with less than 40 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the first level, where the via includes tungsten.
In another aspect, a 3D semiconductor device, the device including: a first level overlaid by a second level, the first level including first circuits, where the first circuits include single crystal first transistors and include first interconnections, where the second level includes second circuits, the second circuits include single crystal second transistors and include second interconnections, where the first circuit is aligned to the second circuit with less than 200 nm misalignment; and a Global Power distribution network, where the first level includes at least one Local Power distribution network, where the Global Power distribution network distributes power to the Local Power distribution network, where the Global Power distribution network includes wires including an at least 50% greater conductivity than wires of the Local Power distribution network.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including single crystal silicon; a first metal layer over the first silicon layer; second metal layer over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include single crystal silicon; a third metal layer over the first level; a fourth metal layer over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with less than 40 nm alignment error; a global power distribution network and a local power distribution network, where the global power distribution network includes the fourth metal layer, and where the local power distribution network includes the third metal layer.
In another aspect, a method to form a 3D semiconductor device, the method including: providing a first level including first circuits, the first circuits including first transistors and first interconnection; preparing a second level including a silicon layer; forming second circuits over the second level, the second circuits including second transistors and second interconnection; transferring with bonding the second level on top of the first level; and then thinning the second level to a thickness of less than ten microns, where the device includes an upper most semiconductor level, where the upper most semiconductor level includes Input/Output (“I/O”) circuits designed to connect the device to external devices, and where the bonding is hybrid bonding.
In another aspect, a method to form a 3D semiconductor device, the method including: providing a first level including first circuits, the first circuits including first transistors and first interconnection; preparing a second level including a silicon layer; forming second circuits over the second level, the second circuits including second transistors and second interconnection; transferring with bonding the second level on top of the first level; and then thinning the second level to a thickness of less than ten microns; and forming heat removal paths designed to remove heat from the second circuits to an external surface of the 3D semiconductor device, where the bonding is hybrid bonding.
In another aspect, a method to form a 3D semiconductor device, the method including: providing a first level including first circuits, the first circuits including first transistors and first interconnection; preparing a second level including a silicon layer; forming second circuits over the second level, the second circuits including second transistors and second interconnection; transferring with bonding the second level on top of the first level; and then thinning the second level to a thickness of less than thirty microns, where the bonding includes oxide to oxide bonds, where the bonding includes metal to metal bonds, and where at least one of the metal to metal bond structures has a pitch of less than 1 micron from another of the metal to metal bond structures.
In another aspect, a method to form a 3D semiconductor device, the method including: providing a first level including first circuits, the first circuits including first transistors and first interconnection; preparing a second level including a silicon layer; forming second circuits over the second level, the second circuits including second transistors and second interconnection; transferring with bonding the second level on top of the first level; and then thinning the second level to a thickness of less than thirty microns, where the device includes an upper most semiconductor level, where the upper most semiconductor level includes Input/Output (“I/O”) circuits designed to connect the device to external devices, and where the bonding is hybrid bonding.
In another aspect, a method to form a 3D semiconductor device, the method including: providing a first level including first circuits, the first circuits including first transistors and first interconnection; preparing a second level including a silicon layer; forming second circuits over the second level, the second circuits including second transistors and second interconnection; transferring with bonding the second level on top of the first level; and then thinning the second level to a thickness of less than thirty microns; and forming heat removal paths designed to remove heat from the second circuits to an external surface of the 3D semiconductor device, where the bonding is hybrid bonding.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including first single crystal silicon; a first metal layer disposed over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error; a power distribution network, where the power distribution network includes the third metal layer, and a plurality of connection paths from the power distribution network to the plurality of transistors.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including first single crystal silicon; a first metal layer disposed over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error; a via disposed through the first level; and connection pads disposed over a portion of the fourth metal layer, where the connection pads are capable to include connection to external devices.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including a first single crystal silicon; a first metal layer disposed over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include a second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the first level, where the first level thickness is less than two microns.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including a first single crystal silicon and plurality of first transistors; a first metal layer disposed over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a third metal layer disposed over the second metal layer, a second level including a plurality of second transistors, the first level disposed over the third metal layer; a fourth metal layer disposed over the second level; a fifth metal layer disposed over the fourth metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the second level, where the second level thickness is less than two microns, where the fifth metal layer includes a global power distribution grid, and where a typical thickness of the fifth metal layer is greater than the typical thickness of the second metal layer by at least 50%.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including a first single crystal silicon and a plurality of first transistors; a first metal layer disposed over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a third metal layer disposed over the second metal layer, a second level including a plurality of second transistors, the first level disposed over the third metal layer; a fourth metal layer disposed over the second level; a fifth metal layer disposed over the fourth metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the second level, where the via has a diameter of less than 450 nm, where the fifth metal layer include global power distribution grid, and where a typical thickness of the fifth metal layer is greater than a typical thickness of the second metal layer by at least 50%.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including a first silicon layer including a first single crystal silicon and a plurality of first transistors; a first metal layer disposed over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a third metal layer disposed over the second metal layer; a second level including a plurality of second transistors, the first level disposed over the third metal layer, a fourth metal layer disposed over the second level; a fifth metal layer disposed over the fourth metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the second level, where the via has a diameter of less than 450 nm, where at least one of the plurality of second transistors includes a metal gate, where the fifth metal layer includes a global power distribution grid, and where a typical thickness of the fifth metal layer is greater than a typical thickness of the second metal layer by at least 50%.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer comprising a first single crystal silicon and a plurality of first transistors; a first metal layer disposed over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a third metal layer disposed over the second metal layer; a second level comprising a plurality of second transistors, the second level disposed over the third metal layer; a fourth metal layer disposed over the second level; a fifth metal layer disposed over the fourth metal layer, a connection path from the fifth metal layer to the second metal layer, where the connection path includes a via disposed through the second level, where the via has a diameter of less than 450 nm, where the fifth metal layer includes a global power distribution grid, and where a typical thickness of the fifth metal layer is greater than a typical thickness of the second metal layer by at least 50%.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer comprising a first single crystal silicon and a plurality of first transistors; a first metal layer disposed over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a third metal layer disposed over the second metal layer; a second level comprising a plurality of second transistors, the second level disposed over the third metal layer; a fourth metal layer disposed over the second level; a fifth metal layer disposed over the fourth metal layer; a connection path from the fifth metal layer to the second metal layer, where the connection path includes a via disposed through the second level, where the via has a diameter of less than 450 nm, where a typical thickness of the second metal layer is greater than a typical thickness of the third metal layer by at least 50%, where the fifth metal layer includes a global power distribution grid, and where a typical thickness of the fifth metal layer is greater than a typical thickness of the second metal layer by at least 50%.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer comprising a first single crystal silicon and a plurality of first transistors; a first metal layer disposed over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a third metal layer disposed over the second metal layer; a second level comprising a plurality of second transistors, the second level disposed over the third metal layer; a fourth metal layer disposed over the second level; a fifth metal layer disposed over the fourth metal layer; a connection path from the fifth metal layer to the second metal layer, where the connection path includes a via disposed through the second level, where the via has a diameter of less than 450 nm, where the second level includes an array of memory cells, where each of the memory cells includes at least one of the plurality of second transistors, where the fifth metal layer includes a global power distribution grid, and where a typical thickness of the fifth metal layer is greater than a typical thickness of the second metal layer by at least 50%.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including a first single crystal silicon; a first metal layer disposed over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include a second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the first level, where the first level thickness is less than two microns.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including first single crystal silicon; a first metal layer disposed over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error; a via disposed through the first level; and connection pads disposed over a portion of the fourth metal layer, where the connection pads are capable to include connection to external devices.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including first single crystal silicon; a first metal layer disposed over the first silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error; a power distribution network, where the power distribution network includes the third metal layer, and a plurality of connection paths from the power distribution network to the plurality of transistors.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including a first single crystal silicon; a first metal layer disposed over the first single crystal silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include a second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the first level, where the fourth metal layer provides a global power distribution, and where a typical thickness of the fourth metal layer is at least 50% greater than a typical thickness of the third metal.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including a first single crystal silicon; a first metal layer disposed over the first single crystal silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include a second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error; a via disposed through the first level; and connection pads disposed under a portion of the first metal layer, where the connection pads are capable to include connection to external devices.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first silicon layer including a first single crystal silicon; a first metal layer disposed over the first single crystal silicon layer; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include a second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error, and where at least one of the plurality of transistors includes a two sided gate.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first substrate; a first metal layer disposed over the substrate; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include a second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 100 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the first level, where the via has a diameter of less than 450 nm, where the fourth metal layer provides a global power distribution, and where a typical thickness of the fourth metal layer is at least 50% greater than a typical thickness of the third metal.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first substrate; a first metal layer disposed over the first substrate; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include a second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 40 nm alignment error; a via disposed through the first level; and where the fourth metal layer is formed into heat removal paths designed to remove heat from the plurality of transistors to an external surface of the device.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first substrate; a first metal layer disposed over the substrate; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include a second single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 100 nm alignment error; and connection pads disposed above a portion of the fourth metal layer, where the connection pads are capable to include connection to external devices.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first substrate; a first metal layer disposed over the substrate; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 200 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the first level, where the via has a diameter of less than 450 nm, where the fourth metal layer provides a global power distribution, and where the via is directly connected to at least one of the plurality of transistors.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a substrate; a first metal layer disposed over the first substrate; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 200 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the first level, where at least a portion of the third metal layer and a portion of the fourth metal layer are part of heat removal paths, and where the heat removal paths are designed to remove heat from the plurality of transistors to an external surface of the device.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a substrate; a first metal layer disposed over the substrate; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 200 nm alignment error; a global power distribution network; and a local power distribution network, where the global power distribution network includes the fourth metal layer, where the local power distribution network includes the third metal layer, and where a typical thickness of the fourth metal layer is at least 50% greater than a typical thickness of the third metal.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first substrate; a first metal layer disposed over the first substrate; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors each include single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 200 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the first level, where the via has a diameter of less than 450 nm, where the fourth metal layer provides a global power distribution, and where the device includes at least one power supply circuit.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first substrate; a first metal layer disposed over the first substrate; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors each include single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 200 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the first level, where a portion of the third metal layer and/or a portion of the fourth metal layer are part of heat removal paths, and where an average thickness of the fourth metal layer is greater than an average thickness of the second metal layer by at least 40%.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first substrate; a first metal layer disposed over the first substrate; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 200 nm alignment error; a global power distribution network; a local power distribution network, where the global power distribution network includes the fourth metal layer, and where the local power distribution network includes the third metal layer; and connection pads disposed over a portion of the fourth metal layer, where the connection pads are capable to provide connection to external devices.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first substrate; a first metal layer disposed over the first substrate; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors each include single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 200 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the first level, where the via has a diameter of less than 450 nm, where the fourth metal layer provides a global power distribution, and where processing of the device includes use of a carrier wafer.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first substrate; a first metal layer disposed over the first substrate; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a single crystal layer and a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where an average thickness of the single crystal layer is less than one micron; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 200 nm alignment error; and a via disposed through the first level, and where processing of the single crystal layer to the thickness includes use of at least one etch rate selectivity.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first substrate; a first metal layer disposed over the first substrate; a second metal layer disposed over the first metal layer; a first level including a plurality of transistors, the first level disposed over the second metal layer, where the plurality of transistors include single crystal silicon; a third metal layer disposed over the first level; a fourth metal layer disposed over the third metal layer, where the fourth metal layer is aligned to the first metal layer with a less than 200 nm alignment error; a global power distribution network; a local power distribution network, where the global power distribution network includes the fourth metal layer, and where the local power distribution network includes the third metal layer; and at least one direct contact, where the at least one direct contact connects at least one of the plurality of transistors to the third metal layer.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first level including a first single crystal layer, the first level including a plurality of first transistors and at least one first metal layer, where the at least one first metal layer overlays the first single crystal layer, and where the at least one first metal layer includes interconnects between the first transistors thus including formation of first control circuits; a second metal layer overlaying the at least one first metal layer; a second level overlaying the second metal layer, the second level including a plurality of second transistors; a third level overlaying the second level, the third level including a plurality of third transistors, where the first control circuits include at least one sense amplifier, where the second level includes a plurality of first memory cells, the first memory cells each including at least one of the second transistors, where the third level includes a plurality of second memory cells, the second memory cells each including at least one of the third transistors, where at least one of the second memory cells is at least partially disposed atop of the control circuits, and where the first control circuits are connected to control data written to at least one of the second memory cells; a third metal layer disposed above the third level; and a fourth metal layer disposed above the third metal layer; where the second transistors include second transistor gate locations, where the third transistors include third transistors gate locations, where the third transistor gate locations are aligned to the second transistor gate locations within less than 100 nm but more than 0.2 nm alignment error, being formed following two independently aligned lithography steps, where the fourth metal layer has an average thickness which is at least twice an average thickness of the second metal layer, and where the fourth metal layer includes a global power distribution grid.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first level including a first single crystal layer, the first level including a plurality of first transistors and at least one first metal layer, where the at least one first metal layer overlays the first single crystal layer, and where the at least one first metal layer includes interconnects between the first transistors thus including formation of first control circuits; a second metal layer overlaying the at least one first metal layer; a second level overlaying the second metal layer, the second level including a plurality of second transistors; a third level overlaying the second level, the third level including a plurality of third transistors, where the second level includes a plurality of first memory cells, the first memory cells each including at least one of the second transistors, where the third level includes a plurality of second memory cells, the second memory cells each including at least one of the third transistors, where at least one of the second memory cells is at least partially disposed atop of the first control circuits, and where the first control circuits are connected to control data written to at least one of the second memory cells; a third metal layer disposed above the third level; and a fourth metal layer disposed above the third metal layer, where the second transistors include second transistor gate locations, where the third transistors include third transistor gate locations, where the third transistor gate locations are aligned to the second transistor gate locations within less than 100 nm but more than 0.2 nm alignment error, being formed following two independently aligned lithography steps, and where the fourth metal layer has an average thickness which is at least twice an average thickness of the second metal layer.
In another aspect, a semiconductor device, the device including: a first level including a first single crystal layer, the first level including a plurality of first transistors and at least one first metal layer, where the at least one first metal layer overlays the first single crystal layer, and where the at least one first metal layer includes interconnects between the first transistors thus including formation of first control circuits; a second metal layer overlaying the at least one first metal layer; a second level overlaying the second metal layer, the second level including a plurality of second transistors; a third level overlaying the second level, the third level including a plurality of third transistors, where the second level includes a plurality of first memory cells, the first memory cells each including at least one of the second transistors, where the third level includes a plurality of second memory cells, the second memory cells each including at least one of the third transistors, where at least one of the second memory cells is at least partially disposed atop of the first control circuits, and where the first control circuits are connected to control data written to at least one of the second memory cells; a third metal layer disposed above the third level; a fourth metal layer disposed above the third metal layer; where the second transistors include second transistor channels, where the third transistors include third transistor channels, where at least one of the second transistor channels is aligned to at least one of the third transistor channels with a greater than 1 nm but less than 40 nm alignment error, where the second transistor channel lithography step was different than the third transistor channel lithography step, and where the fourth metal layer has an average thickness which is at least twice an average thickness of the second metal layer; and a conductive path from the fourth metal layer to the second metal layer, where the conductive path includes a via disposed through the third level, and where the via has a diameter of less than 500 nm.
Various embodiments of the invention will be understood and appreciated more fully from the following detailed description, taken in conjunction with the drawings in which:
Various embodiments of the invention are now described with reference to the drawing figures. Persons of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the description and figures illustrate rather than limit the invention and that in general the figures are not drawn to scale for clarity of presentation. Such skilled persons will also realize that many more embodiments are possible by applying the inventive principles contained herein and that such embodiments fall within the scope of the invention which is not to be limited except by the appended claims.
Some drawing figures may describe process flows for building devices. The process flows, which may be a sequence of steps for building a device, may have many structures, numerals and labels that may be common between two or more adjacent steps. In such cases, some labels, numerals and structures used for a certain step's figure may have been described in the previous steps' figures.
Silicon layer 0204 and silicon layer 0216 may be may be substantially absent of semiconductor dopants to form an undoped silicon region or layer, or doped, such as, for example, with elemental or compound species that form a p+, or p, or p−, or n+, or n, or n− silicon layer or region. The heat removal apparatus 0202 may include an external surface from which heat transfer may take place by methods such as air cooling, liquid cooling, or attachment to another heat sink or heat spreader structure.
Typically, many contacts may be made among the supply and ground distribution networks and first silicon layer 0304. Due to this, there could exist a low thermal resistance among the power/ground distribution network and the heat removal apparatus 0302. Since power/ground distribution networks may be typically constructed of conductive metals and could have low effective electrical resistance, the power/ground distribution networks could have a low thermal resistance as well. Each logic/memory cell or gate on the 3D integrated circuit (such as, for example, second transistor 0314) is typically connected to VDD and ground, and therefore could have contacts to the power and ground distribution network. The contacts could help transfer heat efficiently (for example, with low thermal resistance) from each logic/memory cell or gate on the 3D integrated circuit (such as, for example, second transistor 0314) to the heat removal apparatus 0302 through the power/ground distribution network and the silicon layer 0304. Silicon layer 0304 and silicon layer 0316 may be may be substantially absent of semiconductor dopants to form an undoped silicon region or layer, or doped, such as, for example, with elemental or compound species that form a p+, or p, or p−, or n+, or n, or n− silicon layer or region. The heat removal apparatus 0302 may include an external surface from which heat transfer may take place by methods such as air cooling, liquid cooling, or attachment to another heat sink or heat spreader structure.
Defect annealing, such as furnace thermal or optical annealing, of thin layers of the crystalline materials generally included in 3D-ICs to the temperatures that may lead to substantial dopant activation or defect anneal, for example above 600° C., may damage or melt the underlying metal interconnect layers of the stacked 3D-IC, such as copper or aluminum interconnect layers. An embodiment of the invention is to form 3D-IC structures and devices wherein a heat spreading, heat conducting and/or optically reflecting or absorbent material layer or layers (which may be called a shield) is incorporated between the sensitive metal interconnect layers and the layer or regions being optically irradiated and annealed, or annealed from the top of the 3D-IC stack using other methods. An exemplary generalized process flow is shown in
As illustrated in
As illustrated in
Bonding surfaces, donor bonding surface 401 and acceptor bonding surface 411, may be prepared for wafer bonding by depositions (such as silicon oxide), polishes, plasma, or wet chemistry treatments to facilitate successful wafer to wafer bonding. The insulation layer, such as deposited bonding oxides and/or before bonding preparation existing oxides, between the donor wafer transferred layer and the acceptor wafer topmost metal layer, may include thicknesses of less than 1 um, less than 500 nm, less than 400 nm, less than 300 nm, less than 200 nm, or less than 100 nm.
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Formation of CMOS in one transferred layer and the orthogonal connect strip methodology may be found as illustrated in at least FIGS. 30-33, 73-80, and 94 and related specification sections of U.S. Pat. No. 8,273,610, and may be applied to at least the
A planar fully depleted n-channel MOSFET (FD-MOSFET) with an optional integrated heat shield/spreader suitable for a monolithic 3D IC may be constructed as follows. The FD-MOSFET may provide an improved transistor variability control and conduction channel electrostatic control, as well as the ability to utilize an updoped channel, thereby improving carrier mobility. In addition, the FD-MOSFET does not demand doping or pocket implants in the channel to control the electrostatic characteristics and tune the threshold voltages. Sub-threshold slope, DIBL, and other short channel effects are greatly improved due to the firm gate electrostatic control over the channel. Moreover, a heat spreading, heat conducting and/or optically reflecting material layer or layers may be incorporated between the sensitive metal interconnect layers and the layer or regions being optically irradiated and annealed to repair defects in the crystalline 3D-IC layers and regions and to activate semiconductor dopants in the crystalline layers or regions of a 3D-IC without harm to the sensitive metal interconnect and associated dielectrics.
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A thermal conduction path may be constructed from the devices in the upper layer, the transferred donor layer and formed transistors, to the acceptor wafer substrate and associated heat sink. The thermal conduction path from the FD-MOSFET transistor device and other devices on the top (second) crystalline layer, for example, raised S/D regions 532, to the acceptor wafer heat sink 597 may include source & drain contacts 540, second device layer metal interconnect 561, TL V 560, shield path connect 585 (shown as twice), shield path via 583 (shown as twice), metal interconnect 581, first (acceptor) layer metal interconnect 591, acceptor wafer transistors and devices 593, and acceptor substrate 595. The elements of the thermal conduction path may include materials that have a thermal conductivity greater than 10 W/m-K, for example, copper (about 400 W/m-K), aluminum (about 237 W/m-K), and Tungsten (about 173 W/m-K), and may include material with thermal conductivity lower than 10 W/m-K but have a high heat transfer capacity due to the wide area available for heat transfer and thickness of the structure (Fourier's Law), such as, for example, acceptor substrate 595. The elements of the thermal conduction path may include materials that are thermally conductive but may not be substantially electrically conductive, for example, Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposited Diamond Like Carbon-PECVD DLC (about 1000 W/m-K), and Chemical Vapor Deposited (CVD) graphene (about 5000 W/m-K). The acceptor wafer interconnects may be substantially surrounded by BEOL isolation 596 dielectric. The heat removal apparatus, which may include acceptor wafer heat sink 597, may include an external surface from which heat transfer may take place by methods such as air cooling, liquid cooling, or attachment to another heat sink or heat spreader structure.
Furthermore, some or all of the layers utilized as shield/heat sink layer 588, which may include shapes of material such as the strips or fingers as illustrated in
TL Vs 560 may be formed through the transferred layers. As the transferred layers may be thin, on the order of about 200 nm or less in thickness, the TL Vs may be easily manufactured as a typical metal to metal via may be, and said TL V may have state of the art diameters such as nanometers or tens to a few hundreds of nanometers, such as, for example about 150 nm or about 100 nm or about 50 nm. The thinner the transferred layers, the smaller the thru layer via diameter obtainable, which may result from maintaining manufacturable via aspect ratios. The thickness of the layer or layers transferred according to some embodiments of the invention may be designed as such to match and enable the most suitable obtainable lithographic resolution (and enable the use of conventional state of the art lithographic tools), such as, for example, less than about 10 nm, 14 nm, 22 nm or 28 nm linewidth resolution and alignment capability, such as, for example, less than about 5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, or 40 nm alignment accuracy/precision/error, of the manufacturing process employed to create the thru layer vias or any other structures on the transferred layer or layers.
As illustrated in
Formation of CMOS in one transferred layer and the orthogonal connect strip methodology may be found as illustrated in at least FIGS. 30-33, 73-80, and 94 and related specification sections of U.S. Pat. No. 8,273,610, and may be applied to at least the
Persons of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the illustrations in
In many applications it is desired to use a combination of N type transistors and P type transistors. While using two overlaid layers, at least one layer of P type transistors on top of at least one layer of N type transistors, has been previously described herein and n referenced patent applications, it might be desired to have those transistors connected by the same overlaying interconnection layers coupling to one transistor layer. In U.S. Pat. No. 8,273,610, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, there are at least two flows to provide such. The flows could be adapted to vertical transistors just as well. The first flow suggests using repeating rows of N type and P type and is detailed in at least FIGS. 20-35 and FIGS. 73-79 of U.S. Pat. No. 8,273,610. An alternative flow suggests using layers within the strata in a vertical manner, and is described in at least FIG. 95 of U.S. Pat. No. 8,273,610.
While concepts in this document have been described with respect to 3D-ICs with two stacked device layers, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that it can be valid for 3D-ICs with more than two stacked device layers. Additionally, some of the concepts may be applied to 2D ICs.
An additional embodiment of the invention is to utilize the underlying interconnection layer or layers to provide connections and connection paths (electrical and/or thermal) for the overlying transistors. While the common practice in the IC industry is that interconnection layers are overlaying the transistors that they connect, the 3D IC technology may include the possibility of constructing connections underneath (below) the transistors as well. For example, some of the connections to, from, and in-between transistors in a layer of transistors may be provided by the interconnection layer or layers above the transistor layer; and some of the connections to, from, and in-between the transistors may be provided by the interconnection layer or layers below the transistor layer or layers. In general there is an advantage to have the interconnect closer to the transistors that they are connecting and using both sides of the transistors—both above and below—provides enhanced “closeness” to the transistors. In addition, there may be less interconnect routing congestion that would impede the efficient or possible connection of a transistor to transistors in other layers and to other transistors in the same layer.
The connection layers may, for example, include power delivery, heat removal, macro-cell connectivity, and routing between macro-cells.
One method to solve the issue of high-temperature source-drain junction processing is to make transistors without junctions i.e. Junction-Less Transistors (JLTs). An embodiment of this invention uses JLTs as a building block for 3D stacked semiconductor circuits and chips.
Step (K):
A floating-body DRAM has thus been constructed, with (1) horizontally-oriented transistors—i.e., current flowing in substantially the horizontal direction in transistor channels, (2) some of the memory cell control lines, e.g., source-lines SL, constructed of heavily doped silicon and embedded in the memory cell layer, (3) side gates simultaneously deposited over multiple memory layers, and (4) monocrystalline (or single-crystal) silicon layers obtained by layer transfer techniques such as ion-cut.
While many of today's memory technologies rely on charge storage, several companies are developing non-volatile memory technologies based on resistance of a material changing. Examples of these resistance-based memories include phase change memory, Metal Oxide memory, resistive RAM (RRAM), memristors, solid-electrolyte memory, ferroelectric RAM, conductive bridge RAM, and MRAM. Background information on these resistive-memory types is given in “Overview of candidate device technologies for storage-class memory,” IBM Journal of Research and Development, vol. 52, no. 4.5, pp. 449-464, July 2008 by Burr, G. W.; Kurdi, B. N.; Scott, J. C.; Lam, C. H.; Gopalakrishnan, K.; Shenoy, R. S.
While resistive memories described previously form a class of non-volatile memory, others classes of non-volatile memory exist. NAND flash memory forms one of the most common non-volatile memory types. It can be constructed of two main types of devices: floating-gate devices where charge is stored in a floating gate and charge-trap devices where charge is stored in a charge-trap layer such as Silicon Nitride. Background information on charge-trap memory can be found in “Integrated Interconnect Technologies for 3D Nanoelectronic Systems”, Artech House, 2009 by Bakir and Meindl (“Bakir”) and “A Highly Scalable 8-Layer 3D Vertical-Gate (VG) TFT NAND Flash Using Junction-Free Buried Channel BE-SONOS Device,” Symposium on VLSI Technology, 2010 by Hang-Ting Lue, et al. The architectures shown in
A 3D charge-trap memory has thus been constructed, with (1) horizontally-oriented transistors—i.e. current flowing in substantially the horizontal direction in transistor channels, (2) some of the memory cell control lines—e.g., bit lines BL, constructed of heavily doped silicon and embedded in the memory cell layer, (3) side gates simultaneously deposited over multiple memory layers for transistors, and (4) monocrystalline (or single-crystal) silicon layers obtained by layer transfer techniques such as ion-cut. This use of single-crystal silicon obtained with ion-cut is a key differentiator from past work on 3D charge-trap memories such as “A Highly Scalable 8-Layer 3D Vertical-Gate (VG) TFT NAND Flash Using Junction-Free Buried Channel BE-SONOS Device,” Symposium on VLSI Technology, 2010 by Hang-Ting Lue, et al. that used polysilicon.
While the 3D DRAM and 3D resistive memory implementations herein have been described with single crystal silicon constructed with ion-cut technology, other options exist. One could construct them with selective epi technology. Procedures for doing these will be clear to those skilled in the art.
The monolithic 3D integration concepts described in this patent application can lead to novel embodiments of poly-silicon-based memory architectures as well. Poly silicon based architectures could potentially be cheaper than single crystal silicon based architectures when a large number of memory layers need to be constructed. While the below concepts are explained by using resistive memory architectures as an example, it will be clear to one skilled in the art that similar concepts can be applied to NAND flash memory and DRAM architectures described previously in this patent application.
In many applications it is desired to use a combination of N type transistors and P type transistors. While using two overlaid layers, at least one layer of P type transistors on top of at least one layer of N type transistors, has been previously described herein and in referenced patent applications, it might be desired to have those transistors connected by the same overlaying interconnection layers coupling to one transistor layer. In U.S. Pat. No. 8,273,610, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, there are at least two flows to provide such. The flows could be adapted to vertical transistors just as well. The first flow suggests using repeating rows of N type and P type and is detailed in at least FIGS. 20-35 and FIGS. 73-79 of U.S. Pat. No. 8,273,610. An alternative flow suggests using layers within the strata in a vertical manner, and is described in at least FIG. 95 of U.S. Pat. No. 8,273,610.
While some concepts in this document have been described with respect to 3D-ICs with two stacked device layers, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that it can be valid for 3D-ICs with more than two stacked device layers. Additionally, some of the concepts may be applied to 2D ICs.
An additional embodiment of the invention is to utilize the underlying interconnection layer or layers to provide connections and connection paths (electrical and/or thermal) for the overlying transistors. While the common practice in the IC industry is that interconnection layers are overlaying the transistors that they connect, the 3D IC technology may include the possibility of constructing connections underneath (below) the transistors as well. For example, some of the connections to, from, and in-between transistors in a layer of transistors may be provided by the interconnection layer or layers above the transistor layer; and some of the connections to, from, and in-between the transistors may be provided by the interconnection layer or layers below the transistor layer or layers. In general there is an advantage to have the interconnect closer to the transistors that they are connecting and using both sides of the transistors—both above and below—provides enhanced “closeness” to the transistors. In addition, there may be less interconnect routing congestion that would impede the efficient or possible connection of a transistor to transistors in other layers and to other transistors in the same layer.
The connection layers may, for example, include power delivery, heat removal, macro-cell connectivity, and routing between macro-cells. As illustrated in
An important advantage is that the connections could be made above and below the transistor layers. A Macro-cell library could use under the transistor layer connections and over the transistor layer connections. A router can use under the transistor layer connections and over the transistor layer connections, and power delivery could use under the transistor layer connections and over the transistor layer connections. Some of the connections could be solely for the transistor of that layer and other connections could include connections to other transistor or device layers.
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The process flow may involve first processing the connection layers such as presented in
As illustrated in
The design flow of a 3D IC that incorporates the “below-transistor” connections, such as are described for example, with respect to
For the case of connecting below-transistor routing layers to the conventional above-transistor routing layers, each connection may pass through generic connections 4250 to cross the transistor-forming layers. Such contacts may already exist for many nets that directly connect to transistor sources, drains, and gates; and hence, such nets can be relatively freely routed using both below- and above-transistors interconnection routing layers. Other nets that may not normally include generic connections 4250 in their structure may be routed on either side of the transistor layer but not both, as crossing the transistor layer may incur creating additional generic connections 4250; and hence, potentially congest the transistor layer.
Consequently, a good approach for routing in such a situation may be to use the below-transistor layers for short-distance wiring and create wiring library macros that may tend to be short-distanced in nature. Macro outputs, on the other hand, frequently need to additionally connect to remote locations and should be made available at contacts, such as generic connections 4250, that are to be used on both sides of the transistor layer. When routing, nets that are targeted for both below and above the transistor layer and that do not include contacts such as generic connections 4250 may need special prioritized handling that may split them into two or more parts and insert additional contact[s] in the transistor layer before proceeding to route the design. An additional advantage of the availability and use of an increased number of routing layers on both sides of the transistor layer is the router's greater ability to use relaxed routing rules while not increasing routing congestion. For example, relaxing routing rules such as wider traces, wherein 1.5× or more the width of those traces used for the same layer in one sided routing for the same process node could be utilized in the two sided routing (above and below transistor layer), and may result in reduced resistance; and larger metal spacing, wherein 1.5× or more the space of those spaces used for the same layer in one sided routing for the same process node, could be utilized in the two sided routing (above and below transistor layer), and may result in decreased crosstalk and capacitance.
Persons of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the illustrations in
Some embodiments of the invention may include alternative techniques to build IC (Integrated Circuit) devices including techniques and methods to construct 3D IC systems. Some embodiments of the invention may enable device solutions with far less power consumption than prior art. The device solutions could be very useful for the growing application of mobile electronic devices and mobile systems such as, for example, mobile phones, smart phone, and cameras, those mobile systems may also connect to the internet. For example, incorporating the 3D IC semiconductor devices according to some embodiments of the invention within the mobile electronic devices and mobile systems could provide superior mobile units that could operate much more efficiently and for a much longer time than with prior art technology.
Smart mobile systems may be greatly enhanced by complex electronics at a limited power budget. The 3D technology described in the multiple embodiments of the invention would allow the construction of low power high complexity mobile electronic systems. For example, it would be possible to integrate into a small form function a complex logic circuit with high density high speed memory utilizing some of the 3D DRAM embodiments of the invention and add some non-volatile 3D NAND charge trap or RRAM described in some embodiments of the invention. Mobile system applications of the 3DIC technology described herein may be found at least in FIG. 156 of U.S. Pat. No. 8,273,610, the contents of which are incorporated by reference.
In this document, the connection made between layers of, generally single crystal, transistors, which may be variously named for example as thermal contacts and vias, Thru Layer Via (TL V), TSV (Thru Silicon Via), may be made and include electrically and thermally conducting material or may be made and include an electrically non-conducting but thermally conducting material or materials. A device or method may include formation of both of these types of connections, or just one type. By varying the size, number, composition, placement, shape, or depth of these connection structures, the coefficient of thermal expansion exhibited by a layer or layers may be tailored to a desired value. For example, the coefficient of thermal expansion of the second layer of transistors may be tailored to substantially match the coefficient of thermal expansion of the first layer, or base layer of transistors, which may include its (first layer) interconnect layers.
Base wafers or substrates, or acceptor wafers or substrates, or target wafers substrates herein may be substantially comprised of a crystalline material, for example, mono-crystalline silicon or germanium, or may be an engineered substrate/wafer such as, for example, an SOI (Silicon on Insulator) wafer or GeOI (Germanium on Insulator) substrate.
It will also be appreciated by persons of ordinary skill in the art that the invention is not limited to what has been particularly shown and described hereinabove. For example, drawings or illustrations may not show n or p wells for clarity in illustration. Moreover, transistor channels illustrated or discussed herein may include doped semiconductors, but may instead include undoped semiconductor material. Further, any transferred layer or donor substrate or wafer preparation illustrated or discussed herein may include one or more undoped regions or layers of semiconductor material. Rather, the scope of the invention includes both combinations and sub-combinations of the various features described hereinabove as well as modifications and variations which would occur to such skilled persons upon reading the foregoing description. Thus the invention is to be limited only by the appended claims.
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